What is the fastest growing segment of the United States population?  When posing this question to a group of collogues at the dinner table, not a single one could answer correctly.  By 2050, children from immigrant families will make up nearly one third of the population of children in the United States, making them the fastest growing segment¹.  Not only do these children come from a variety of diverse cultural backgrounds, but their lived experiences can be wildly different based upon a myriad of contextual factors¹.  The inability of anyone at my dinner table to point to this population as one of such immense growth indicates a couple of things.  First, a need for general population visibility, and second, an increased understanding of their needs, many of which will need to be met in the United States public education system.  Education has long been considered as the foundation for later life success, a belief that is not excusive to native born Americans, but is rather shared by parents across the globe².  In order to foster an atmosphere of educational success in both the social and academic spheres of schooling, educational institutions must consider the unique factors and experiences of immigrant children in order to meet their needs.

In considering best practice for immigrant children in education, it is helpful to consider what will best facilitate their engagement within the school system at large.  Developmental research suggests that while school engagement is a predictor of positive academic achievement for both immigrant and non-immigrant youths, there may be specific factors that help to facilitate the engagement of immigrant children².  These facilitators include the positive relationships between immigrant children and their parents, their teachers, and their peers within the context of education².  Meaning, if immigrant children are made to feel important and motived within the classroom by their teachers and their peers, and then motivated to succeed academically at home; engagement and thereby achievement will increase².  It is essential for parents and teachers alike to be made aware of the significance of these facilitators, which would not only lend to an increase in student visibility, but also in their educational success.  Creating opportunities for this kind of bi-directional communication between school and home community can lead to significant educational strides being made by immigrant youths².

Despite the presence of these facilitators across the immigrant youth population, a variety of outside contextual factors may get in the way of their execution.  One of those being the presence of family separation.  Although family separation can happen for several reasons and look different depending on circumstance, in all cases it is the separation of the family unit, most typically a parent/parents from their child³.  Family separation due to instances of migration has been happening for decades, but it has garnered significant media attention due to policies imposed by the Trump administration.  While it is obvious that this separation is painful for all parties involved, it can actually result in significant short-term depressive symptoms for young immigrant children³.  If a child is coming to school anxious and depressed due to a lack of awareness of their parents’ status and location, it is grossly unfair to expect them to be fully engaged in the classroom.  In making policy decisions about family separation at the United States boarder as our political leaders are today, a lack of consideration for the needs of the fastest growing United States population is incredibly irresponsible.

In considering these factors, it may be beneficial to examine the successful practices that other countries adopt in their treatment of immigrant children in the public education sector to gain insight into what the United States can do to improve.  In countries like Canada, specifically the Province of Toronto, many public schools have put in place a number of immigrant-inclusive programs helping to foster their engagement in the classroom.  These include family outreach programs, one-on-one attention, immigrant specific classrooms with integration into general education, and culturally inclusive practices such as including tea sets in the classroom to increase visibility.  Policy makers in the United States may argue that Provinces such as Toronto, where every student receives the same amount of funding regardless of their school district, would be unattainable in the United States where funding varies by state and district.  However, several of these interventions come free of charge, and are simply based on an understanding and awareness of immigrant culture.  If educators and policy makers in the United States were made aware of (1) the scope and growth of the United States immigrant youth population, and (2) the importance of considering these cultural differences with regards to their impact on achievement, then perhaps they would consider the successful adaptation of these young migrants the creation of public and educational policy.

References

1. Leventhal, T., & Shuey, E. A. (2014). Neighborhood context and immigrant young children’s development. Developmental Psychology, 50(6), 1771–1787. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036424
2. Motti-Stefanidi, F., & Masten, A. S. (2013). School success and school engagement of immigrant children and adolescents: A risk and resilience developmental perspective. European Psychologist, 18(2), 126–135.
3. Suárez-Orozco, C., Bang, H. J., & Kim, H. Y. (2011). I felt like my heart was staying behind: Psychological implications of family separations & reunifications for immigrant youth. Journal of Adolescent Research, 26(2), 222–257. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558410376830

When considering the growth and development of an immigrant child, the adage: “It takes a village to raise a child” comes to mind. The relationships that are most important in an immigrant child’s life can be broken down into the categories of family, school, and neighborhood – it is essential that these roles produce positive interactions and experiences in order for the child to be raised in a safe environment.

One of the biggest impacts on any child’s development is the influence of parental figures. However, in the immigration process, many immigrant families experience an extended duration of separation from family members.¹ It is not uncommon for parents to leave their children in the care of extended family members during the migration process due to its taxing complications.¹ Many of these children are infants and toddlers and have an especially difficult time dealing with the absence of their parents.¹ While technology allows for video chat and texting, it is hard for everyone to remain connected. Parents slowly become strangers to the children and vice versa, making even the reunion of the family a tough transition, as the roles of parent and child need to be reestablished. ¹ It is not uncommon for the family as a whole to experience bouts of low self-esteem and depression due to this separation. ¹ While these psychological symptoms are not typically lasting, their presence alone is a cause for concern. ¹ It would be more beneficial for all parties involved if this separation was not a part of the immigration process.

School is also a critical factor in the development of immigrant children because it acts as a major source for their acculturation process.² Since the school reflects the culture of the receiving society, it introduces the culture to an immigrant student which then helps them adjust to the new environment.² Schools that have significant and appropriate curricula increases school-wide engagement and intrinsic motivation in all of the students, but it is particularly important for immigrants because of their navigation between experiencing two cultures.² Within the actual school day, it is beneficial for immigrant children in particular to establish working relationships with teachers as they become an additional resource for their adjustment process, helping them learn about the new country, language, and educational requirements.² However, this is not always possible, and many immigrant families find themselves migrating to neighborhoods that are socioeconomically disadvantaged because of their financial status.³

Beyond the financial disadvantages of these poorer neighborhoods, in some cases, it is actually better for immigrant children because they often find themselves in a community of immigrants.³ This is due to social cohesion and the strong bonds that exist between the neighbors.³ Nevertheless, it is important to recognize that not all immigrant children have this experience. Additionally, not all bonds will have positive effects on immigrant children’s academic accomplishments.³ The child’s network often includes people who have limited levels of education, none- English speakers, or does not know how the U.S. education system works and can instead be detrimental to their academic success and development.³

Immigrant children often face acculturative difficulties as well as normal developmental issues.² Challenges include learning a new language, values, beliefs, and behaviors of the receiving culture, and connecting their different worlds and relationship with their heritage.² It is crucial for immigrant children to have a solid support system in the major aspects of their life, especially familial ties, education, and the general community, in order to ensure a healthy development process.

References

1. Suárez-Orozco, C., Bang, H. J., & Kim, H. Y. (2011). I felt like my heart was staying behind: Psychological implications of family separations & reunifications for immigrant youth. Journal of Adolescent Research, 26(2), 222–257. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558410376830
2. Motti-Stefanidi, F., & Masten, A. S. (2013). School success and school engagement of immigrant children and adolescents: A risk and resilience developmental perspective. European Psychologist, 18(2), 126–135. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000139
3. Leventhal, T., & Shuey, E. A. (2014). Neighborhood context and immigrant young children’s development. Developmental Psychology, 50(6), 1771–1787. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036424

Parents, schools, and neighborhoods are important factors immediately affecting children as they grow up⁴. However, these relationships may be different for immigrant children as they face disadvantages growing up as immigrants, including the increasing threats against their health. How do parents, schools, and neighborhoods determine how an immigrant child develops, and how do immigrant parents address this issue as they immigrate?

Family provides constant and direct support for children’s healthy development. However, parents may not always be there for immigrant children. Transnational families are growing as families separate when they immigrate¹. Losing close support from parents may have negative outcomes for immigrant youth, as those with longer separation duration have been found to experience more depression and anxiety symptoms¹. Alternatively relying on friends and family connections in the neighborhood may not provide support as it does not help with developmental outcomes³. Thus, the absence of parents is highly detrimental. Parents should be aware of this if they expect to be separated from their child as they immigrate. However, over time, immigrant children demonstrate less psychological symptoms, suggesting the effects of separation to be short termed and conveying the resiliency and coping ability of immigrant children in the absence of parents¹. Knowing this, parents anticipating separation should provide the most long-distance support, such as maintaining contact through messaging and video calling, during the early stages of separation and trust their children to develop coping mechanisms as separation prolongs.

Providing distant support during separation is not the only way immigrant parents can do to foster their children’s development. Academic achievement in school can also yield positive adaptation and future outcomes for immigrant children². As such, ensuring good academic outcomes, or school success, is important for immigrant youth’s development. School engagement, the children’s efforts and investment in classwork and school, has been found to promote school success, indicating better academic outcomes². Thus, in order to promote school success and consequent positive developmental outcomes, parents can encourage high levels of children engagement with their schools. This also suggests parents to properly select schools with curriculum and programs most suitable for boosting child engagement with the school. For example, immigrant parents can send their children to schools with diverse teaching faculties, as immigrant students can have better engagement when they have teachers of similar race they can identify with.

Other than the school environment, the neighborhood is also an environment that can influence immigrant children’s development. Neighborhood institutional resources (access to educational, social, and health services) is found to be a large factor in determining how well immigrant children develop through providing adequate resources³. For example, a supper club formed in an immigrant neighborhood provides beneficial social resource for immigrant children, as families gather to share food and connect. Where there are more youth services, immigrant children have fewer internalizing problems (internal negative behaviors)³. In the case where children may face separation that lead to psychological symptoms¹, having reliable neighborhood services may provide more support in place of parents. Furthermore, having educational resources translates to schools having quality programs and curriculum that foster school engagement and subsequently academic achievement². As neighborhood institutional resources play such a large role, immigrant parents should choose to reside in the neighborhood with the most access to such resources to enable healthy development for their children.

In conclusion, aspects of the surrounding environment, parents, schools, and neighborhoods, greatly affect the immigrant child’s development. In the process of immigrating, parents need to pinpoint and intervene in such influential factors on their children’s development. Thus, they should have proper decision making as they commit to separation and select schools and neighborhoods.

1. Suárez-Orozco, C., Bang, H. J., & Kim, H. Y. (2011). I felt like my heart was staying behind: Psychological implications of family separations & reunifications for immigrant youth. Journal of Adolescent Research, 26(2), 222–257. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558410376830
2. Motti-Stefanidi, F., & Masten, A. S. (2013). School success and school engagement of immigrant children and adolescents: A risk and resilience developmental perspective. European Psychologist, 18(2), 126–135.
3. Leventhal, T., & Shuey, E. A. (2014). Neighborhood context and immigrant young children’s development. Developmental Psychology, 50(6), 1771–1787. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036424
4. Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (1998). The ecology of developmental processes.Handbook of child psychology: Theoretical models of human development, 1, 993-1028.

Children face all sorts of challenges. It is on us – all of us – to educate ourselves about the types of challenges they face and how we can help. Whether you are a parent, an educator, or even a professional, there are a few key points of information you should know. In addition, you should also know who is at risk of falling through the cracks. One population of our children that has been neglected is immigrant youth. Immigrant children face challenges with separation, neighborhood cohesion, and school engagement.

One risk that is posed to immigrant youth is the potential to be separated from those most important. It is nearly impossible to avoid stories of family separation. The most common and emotion-evoking story we have seen is the story of separations at the border of the country and the detention of young children, either alone of with their families. These children are no doubt affected by this experience. However, we must remember that the experiences of separated and transnational families are all unique¹. Some families are separated by force. Some parents make the decision to leave their children behind or send their children somewhere for a better life¹. For example, some Chinese immigrants make the choice to send their American-born children to China while they continue to make enough money in the United States. No matter the reason, separation from a parent has negative effects on a child¹. Specifically, when a mother is separated from the child for along period of time, the symptoms are the worst¹. On the bright side, symptoms do seem to resolve over time¹.

In addition to family separation, we must also focus on the issue of how to ensure the success of immigrant youth academically and socially. You may think that the geographic locations immigrant children live in and the community that occupies them affects this. However, in studies on neighborhoods, there was no clear understanding on whether or not neighborhoods that immigrant youth grow up in have a great affect². Things such as family processes and immigrant status may have more of an impact. This is not to discount the possible far-reaching effects of quality neighborhood programsthat promote social cohesion. Unfortunately, immigrants are more likely to be living below the poverty line and, in general, neighborhoods low on the socioeconomic scale tend to be low in social cohesion.

Besides neighborhoods, school is also an important developmental space for immigrant youth³.  In all young developing minds, school engagement promotes overall success³. School engagement is a somewhat complicated and multilayered psychological concept; however, it can be broken down. School engagement is about how much the student participates in their learning, their emotions and reactions in the classroom, and how they view their investment in their own education³. Obviously, successes in school and beyond are very important to various levels of achievement. It is importatnt to look for ways to integrateimmigrant youth into US schools. Unfortunately, immigrant status is a risk factor for low school engagement³. Fortunate for those who search for a silver lining, there are things that help. One of those things is access to resources³. These resources can be interpersonal, like a nurturing relationship with a teacher or counselor, or access to a good bilingual English-learning program. They can also be institutional suggestions, such as resourcesprovided by the National Federation of Teachers and the National Education Association.

So, if you’re asking if immigrant children are at risk: the answer is ‘yes, but…’.

Immigrant youth face many more challenges. But, there is also room for remarkable resilience and intervention by those who care. So, when wondering about immigrant neighborhoods, family separation, and education, know that immigrant youth have the potential to secure and achieve promising futures – if we make sure to provide the appropriate resources.

1. Suárez-Orozco, C., Bang, H. J., & Kim, H. Y. (2011). I felt like my heart was staying behind: Psychological implications of family separations & reunifications for immigrant youth. Journal of Adolescent Research, 26(2), 222–257. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558410376830
2. Leventhal, T., & Shuey, E. A. (2014). Neighborhood context and immigrant young children’s development. Developmental Psychology, 50(6), 1771–1787. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036424
3. Motti-Stefanidi, F., & Masten, A. S. (2013). School success and school engagement of immigrant children and adolescents: A risk and resilience developmental perspective. European Psychologist, 18(2), 126–135.

During the process of migration, children and families experience a variety of challenges adapting to a new culture. This separation, if not successful, can have lasting effects throughout a child’s lifetime. Therefore, it is important to increase an understanding of how this adjustment occurs and what factors can either assist in the transition or pose a barrier to its success¹. Neighborhoods and schools play a major role in a child’s development and the successful adaptation to a new culture^1,2.A child’s first formal introduction to a new culture may occur in the school environment. In this environment, a child not only has the opportunity to achieve good grades but also maintain a high level of involvement, a positive emotional response to school, and possess a desire to learn. Eventual success in these areas can be affected by the child’s English language skills, as well as their attitudes towards education and a commitment to achieve².

Studies have identified that immigrant children can experience what is called the immigrant paradox which is when a child, after the first generation, experiences a reduction in academic success which is thought to be related to a change in their attitude towards education². Regardless of this phenomenon, children from grades seven through eleven experience a reduction in engagement with school, whether immigrants or not. This is believed to be related to the developmental stage of adolescence. Therefore, efforts at this age should be implemented to foster a positive relationship with teachers as well as engage students in activities which promote increased interest and active involvement².

Furthermore, a child’s neighborhood in addition to their school and family can also impact their adjustment to a new culture¹. A child’s relationship with their neighborhood, school peers, and family occurs in a bidirectional fashion so that one affects the other. This can be a positive effect by fostering identity and a sense of belonging but can also result in a negative outcome if the neighborhood has a high immigrant population¹. In an immigrant community, a child may have insufficient exposure to English speaking individuals, leaving them at a disadvantage of not knowing the language or how to navigate a new environment. This can result in a decrease in their academic performance and school engagement^1,2.

Lastly, another major challenge in the process of adjusting to a new culture is the potential separation from a parent as a result of migration and even deportation⁴. Circumstances surrounding the separation can result in a lengthy absence of a parent. This results in stress on the family related to the need to shift roles, expectations, and responsibilities as they struggle to meet expectations⁴. These children can experience devastating psychological effects such as depression, anxiety, and emotional trauma³. Long term consequences of the separation can also result in behavioral problems, rejection of the parent’s authority, and even delinquent behavior^3,4.

Although migration to a new country can be initiated to provide positive opportunities and economic gain, the process of adapting to a new culture and reuniting the family may take years to accomplish⁴. Therefore, it is critical that we gain an increased understanding of this complicated process in order to develop strategies and interventions to promote a successful transition.

References

1. Leventhal, T., & Shuey, E. A. (2014). Neighborhood context and immigrant young children’s development. Developmental Psychology, 50(6), 1771–1787. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036424
2. Motti-Stefanidi, F., & Masten, A. S. (2013). School success and school engagement of immigrant children and adolescents: A risk and resilience developmental perspective. European Psychologist, 18(2), 126–135. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000139
3. Rojas-Flores, L., Clements, M. L., Hwang Koo, J., & London, J. (2017). Trauma and psychological distress in Latino citizen children following parental detention and deportation.Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 9(3), 352-361. https://doi.org/10.1037/tra0000177
4. Suárez-Orozco, C., Bang, H. J., & Kim, H. Y. (2011). I felt like my heart was staying behind: Psychological implications of family separations & reunifications for immigrant youth. Journal of Adolescent Research, 26(2), 222–257. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743558410376830

For most children, regardless of immigrant status, their neighborhood and their school are the places in which they spend the most time. However, the experiences and circumstances surrounding these contexts differ greatly for U.S. born children versus immigrant children. For example, non-immigrant children are more likely than immigrant children to attend preschool¹. Additionally, non-immigrant children in the U.S. enter school already speaking English and are taught neighborhood values and beliefs from birth. However, many immigrant children must attend school while in the process of learning English and may take time to learn the community values and customs². It is important to understand how immigrant children’s varied experiences impact their development, specifically in regards to circumstances in schools and neighborhoods.

In addition to lower rates of preschool enrollment, neighborhoods with high numbers of immigrants have decreased access to quality childcare options¹. But, even with these barriers to young childcare and education, neighborhoods with high numbers of immigrants also possess qualities valuable to immigrant children. For example, social cohesion, or the trust and strong bonds that exist between neighbors, can be higher in neighborhoods with higher numbers of immigrants. This social cohesion can help mitigate the level of acculturative stress experienced by the neighborhood immigrant children¹. Lower levels of acculturative stress can help children have smoother acculturative transitions and successes in school—for example, by being able to acquire the level of English proficiency needed to do well academically².

However, it is important to acknowledge that not all immigrant children will experience this social cohesion. Additionally, not all social networks and bonds will have favorable effects on immigrant children’s academic achievements. When an immigrant child’s network consists of people who have limited levels of education, who do not speak English, or who do not know how the U.S. education system works, their academic success and development may suffer¹. It is also important to acknowledge that immigrant status alone can act as a risk factor for instability in academic achievement².

With all of these factors in mind, and the fact that immigrant children are the fastest growing population in the United States¹, communities need to improve and increase support systems that focus on helping immigrant children succeed academically and developmentally. Many schools across the U.S. could take a page out of Utah’s book on how to better assist their immigrant students in these ways. The Granite school district in Salt Lake City hosts a two-week transition program, where newly arrived immigrant students learn important acculturative tasks such as how to behave during a fire drill, how to navigate the bus, and how to open their lockers³. The Granite school system also implemented classes for parents of immigrant children to help strengthen the children’s networks and academic support systems. These parent classes consist of English education, information about how the school system operates, what to anticipate during parent/teacher conferences, and interpreters should the parents need language assistance³.

There is no one easy solution to help immigrant children across the U.S. succeed in school in the face of acculturative stressors and neighborhood disadvantages. However, when school systems like Granite pay attention to the research on what immigrant families need in their schools and neighborhoods, more opportunities will arise for children and parents alike to achieve the success they are capable of and deserve.

References

1. Leventhal, T. & Shuey, E.A. (2014). Neighborhood context and immigrant young children’s development. Developmental Psychology, 50, 1771-1787. doi: 10.1037/a0036424
2. Motti-Stefanidi, F. & Masten, A.S. (2013). School success and school engagement of immigrant children and adolescents: A risk and resilience developmental perspective. European Psychologist, 18, 126-135.
3. Wicks, Annie. (2018, January 31). Lessons from public schools succeeding in helping immigrant students become Americans. Retrieved from https://www.the74million.org/article/lessons-from-public-schools-succeeding-in-helping-immigrant-students-become-americans/