Though President John Adams once warned, “Great is the guilt of unnecessary war,” the United States has been at war for over 90% of its existence. [1] This exhibition will examine and address this recurring theme of war in Modern U.S. History. Specifically, chronologically examining two key aspects within the exhibition’s theme of “American War.” The first of the two aspects the exhibition will cover is the United States’ motive for engaging or intervening in military conflict. The second aspect will focus on the domestic side of “American War,” how the U.S. Citizenry viewed their country’s military ventures. The exhibition contains 12 various forms of primary sources, each addressing one of the numerous military conflicts in Modern U.S. History. Each source, in a different way, sheds light on a specific facet of the exhibition’s underlying theme of “American War.” These sources best illuminate the significance that war has had and continues to have on the United States, and thus are best representative of “American War.” Ultimately, by documenting the evolution of “American War,” this exhibition will show the evolution of the United States itself, and its role in the world.
For the purpose of this exhibition, its theme “American War” is most aptly defined as any armed conflict with either a party or state apart from the United States, in which U.S. military forces or U.S.-backed forces engages. [2] War, particularly in the case of the United States, exerts a major influence on society as well as on the country as a whole. The late American intellectual Charles Tilly wrote extensively in the 20thcentury about a major topic within the field of comparative politics, “state formation.” His 1990, Coercion, Capital, and European States,has become famous for putting forth what the academic world calls the “bellicist theory” of state formation. This theory, simply summarized, concludes, “War makes the state,” and is further expanded by scholars into “more war will lead to more state.” [3] Tilly’s “war makes the state” is important to mention before delving into the exhibition, as it demonstrates the overwhelming societal impacts of war. In the case of the United States, particularly in the post-Reconstruction era, America has evolved into the world’s main superpower. America’s climb to the position it now finds itself in is marked by much, and nearly constant war; going from a minor global entity before the Spanish American War to the world’s main industrial and military superpower following World War II. Modern U.S. History is an affirmation of Tilly’s theory, war has made the United States the country it is today.
Beginning with the Spanish American War and ending with the Wars in the Middle East, this exhibition will cover various themes associated with each particular conflict. An example being President Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s “four freedoms,” and how both present America as a nation free from fear relate to President George Bush’s freedom from terror in his declaration of “War on Terror,” a half century later. [4] History does indeed, in the case of “American War,” repeat itself. However, throughout its history U.S. war making has shifted, with the call for war coming more from the elites and less from the citizenry. In the Spanish American War, President William McKinley had hesitations about intervening, but ultimately did due to U.S. public opinion. [1] Over sixty years later in the Vietnam War, President Nixon’s implementation of a draft in 1969 was met with severe protest and “draft-dodging.” [5] The point here is one that ought to be made, which is how the American people’s perception of war and there will to fight, both worsened as a result of the evolution of “American War.” [6]
The two aspects mentioned in the first paragraph represent the sensitive relationship between the U.S. Elites and the U.S. population, especially in regard to the U.S.’s involvement in military conflict. A relationship that evolved so much it went from the citizens and most of public opinion pressuring President McKinley to go to war against Spain, to eventually the execution of four American college students in 1970, by American Soldiers no less. [5] “American War” is intense; its impact is severe and far felt.
The first aspect of defining the motive for U.S. engagement into each conflict the exhibition covers will be done primarily through presenting sources of U.S. Presidents. These will consist of presidential addresses, photos, Foreign policy documents, and one civilian Time Magazinearticle. Due to Article I of the U.S. Constitution’s “War Powers Clause,” congress (the government) is charged with the responsibility of when to declare war. With this responsibility being reinforced as a result of the “War Powers Act” of 1973. [7] For this reason, motive for the U.S. military’s engagement will be extracted from all but one government (presidential) source in the exhibition. For instance the exhibition will demonstrate that the U.S.’ motive to defend freedom in the Vietnam War, though different in circumstance, is related to and to some extent a result of its intervention in World Wars I and II, both in defense of freedom. [8] This aspect of the exhibition will reveal the values or resources the United States viewed as worthy for engaging in war.
The second aspect of “American War” that the exhibition will focus on is the U.S. citizenry’s perception of war. This will be presented through various sources including but not limited to protests, political cartoons, newspaper articles, and Supreme Court Decisions. Each of these will address how the U.S. people perceived their country’s participation in war, and also how this perception was received by the United States’ elites. A society’s perception of its military ventures reveal values of their country, things it prides itself on and things it is against. [7] In the case of America which prides itself on being the land of the free, it often goes to war to defend freedom. This aspect of the exhibition will demonstrate that war is a catalyst for societal change, “American War” being an instance of such. [9] To name an example, and many will be shown in the exhibition; Vietnam paved the way for more freedom (of speech) for Americans, just as the Civil War led to more freedom for African Americans, nearly one hundred years earlier. The very presence of war in a society exerts an unparalleled influence on not only the citizenry, but on the country’s international status as well. Ultimately revealing how domestic America behaves during a time of war.
It will be quite plain in that just as the exhibition demonstrates a change in why America fought (what for), it also shows the evolution of American society’s perception of war. [7] “American War,” from 1877 onward, is representative of the country’s advancement that took place during this period. Ultimately, this will lead to the conclusion that American society and America’s role in the world, both evolved as a result of “American War.” [8] War is a constant theme modern U.S. History; its significance is evident in the fact that war has made America, the superpower global entity it is today.
Notes (listed by order of appearance)
1) Cullinane, Michael Patrick. “Introduction.” Liberty and American Anti-Imperialism, 2012, 1-10. Accessed May 06, 2019.
2) Tierney, Dominic. “The Two Vietnam Wars: American Perceptions of the Use of Force.” Political Science Quarterly 133, no. 4 (2018): 641-67. Accessed May 05, 2019.
3) Tilly, Charles. Coercion, Capital and European States, A.D.990-1990. Cambridge, MA: Basil Blackwell, 1990.
4) Toaldo, Mattia. The Origins of the US War on Terror: Lebanon, Libya and American Intervention in the Middle East. London: Routledge, 2014.
5) McMahon, Robert. “Contested Memory: The Vietnam War and American Society, 1975–2001.” OUP Academic. December 17, 2002. Accessed May 07, 2019. https://academic.oup.com/dh/article/26/2/159/504858.
6) “Engel, J., Lawrence, M. and Preston, A.: America in the World: A History in Documents from the War with Spain to the War on Terror Princeton: University Press Princeton University. Accessed May 07, 2019. https://press.princeton.edu/titles/10257.html.
7) Foner, Eric. Give Me Liberty!: An American History. New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2017. (Pgs 745-50, 1038-40)
8) O’Brien, Payson Phillips. “American Press, Public, and the Reaction to the Outbreak of the First World War.” OUP Academic. April 26, 2013. Accessed May 06, 2019. https://academic.oup.com/dh/article/37/3/446/430691.
9) Bricker, Renee A., Proulx, and Michael. “Integrating Peace History in the U.S. History Survey Course: Challenging Identity from the Outside In.” OUP Academic. March 01, 2019. Accessed May 08, 2019.