Dehydrins may quench the thirst of plants affected by drought

The last time you were thirsty, you probably opened your fridge for an ice cold Pepsi or even filled up your water glass from the sink.  This seems like a simple task, but to a plant this can be a life or death situation.  Drought affects areas in our own country as well as countries abroad.  Southern China is currently experiencing their worst drought in almost 100 years.  One rural farmer comments that in years past he has sold his wheat crop for $585 and this year it is only worth $30.

In a collaborative effort between Villanova and Drexel universities, researchers are beginning to discover a new way to combat this problem. Published in the American Journal of Botany in March 2010, their research began with a plant called the “resurrection fern” (Polypodium polypodioides) which can lose 95% of its water content without experiencing cell death.  One of the main scientists from Villanova explains that this is truly a miraculous property.  He says, “Imagine this happening to a human.  Most of us wouldn’t make it past 10% or 20%.”  Similarly, most common agricultural crops cannot survive water loss of 20-30%.

They used research techniques such as western blotting, immunolocalization, and atomic force microscopy to identify proteins that help the resurrection fern survive in extreme drought condition.

A class of proteins called dehydrin has been previously identified to participate in this miraculous drought resistance.  However, this study was able to identify the location of dehydrin proteins during the process of dehydration.  They found that the proteins were “prevalent” in the plant’s cell wall.  This is an important discovery that may lead to new findings about the mechanism of this reaction.

Information about this protein class has positive implications for common agricultural plants that currently don’t have protection against drought.  Dehydrins, and the mechanism of their role in drought resistance, could be the answer for thirsty plants worldwide as research continues.

Want to learn more? Check out the resources I used for this blog:

http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2010-03/ajob-bdp033110.php

http://www.nytimes.com/2010/04/05/world/asia/05china.html

History of Smoking Reduces Risk of Parkinson’s Disease

By Kelly Lohr

Believe it or not, a new study has shown that a history of cigarette smoking may actually benefit your health.  Over the last decade, Honglei Chen led a study out of the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina examining long-term health effects of the habit.  Over 300,000 AARP members between the ages of 50 to 71 were surveyed about lifestyle choices over a ten-year period.  Of these subjects, 0.05% of the individuals developed Parkinson’s disease.

Parkinson’s disease is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the breakdown of cells which release the neurotransmitter dopamine in a brain area known as the substantia nigra.   Typical symptoms of Parkinson’s include uncontrollable muscle movements, poor posture, and rigidity.  Of the participants from Chen’s study, it was found that current smokers reduced their risk of Parkinson’s disease by 44% as compared to non-smokers.  Previous smokers who had quit reduced their risk of Parkinson’s by 22%.

Interestingly, the risk of developing Parkinson’s disease did not change based on how many cigarettes a person smoked per day.  Instead, the length of the history of smoking was correlated to reduction in disease risk.  Those who smoked for at least 40 years were 46% less likely to develop Parkinson’s, whereas those who smoked between 30 and 39 years reduced their risk by 35%.  However, individuals who smoked for nine years or less only reduced their risk by 8%.

Despite Chen’s findings, smoking does not slow the progression of Parkinson’s once it develops.  For this reason, experts do not suggest that nicotine or other chemicals in cigarettes should be considered as effective Parkinson’s disease treatments.  Despite this, an improved understanding of the mechanisms behind the reduced risk may lead to breakthroughs in the causes of the disease.

For more information, visit http://www.neurology.org/cgi/content/abstract/74/11/878.

A Truly Sweet Deal

By: Kristen Kocher

Today, geneticists at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (CSHL) in New York and their colleagues at Hebrew University in Israel published a recent study about a genetic mutation in tomato plants. According to their research, a gene, called the florigen gene, has been isolated that has the ability to boost the yielding potential of tomato plants and controls when a plant matures and flowers. The harnessing of this gene is incredibly beneficial because it works in a variety of tomato plant species and across a range of environmental conditions.

So, why is this a sweet deal for farmers? Well, the gene would give farmers the ability to grow tomato plants year-round, greatly increasing the income of money of the agricultural market. Head researcher at CSHL, Zach Lippman, Ph.D, notes, “This discovery has potential to have a significant impact on both the billion-dollar tomato industry, as well as agricultural practices designed to get the most yield from other flowering crops.” To make this deal extra sweet, this gene also enhances the taste of the tomato, making it sweeter and more palatable than normal tomatoes. Normal, non-genetically modified tomato plants produce a limited amount of sugar that they equally distribute to their fruits. With the florigen gene, the amount of sugar produced in tomato plants increases, thus making the fruit produced sweeter and better tasting overall.

The discovery of the florigen gene came when the team at CSHL was searching for genes that initiate increased yield, or hybrid vigor. Hybrid vigor, or heterosis, is a breeding process in which two plants of different varieties are crossed to produce hybrid offspring with higher yields. Charles Darwin discovered heterosis over a century ago through the study of corn and rice crops. The CSHL lab team recently rediscovered heterosis and while the mechanism is largely still unknown, their research has provided some clues as to what the mechanism may be.  According to their findings, this phenomenon occurs due to a single gene that when present causes something called, “superdominance.”

The CSHL team tested many varieties of plant to identify if the florigen gene was superdominant, or always expressed when present. They catalogued a collection of 5,000 tomato plants and located single gene mutations that affect certain characteristics of the plant, such as fruit size and leaf shape. In this mutant library they noticed a trend among 60% of the plants that found a certain gene, the florigen gene, causes increased yield. According to a breakthrough publication in 2005, the florigen gene codes for the production of a certain protein, florigen, which is associated with the timing of maturation and flowering.

They believe that in tomato plants there is a delicate balance between the production of the florigen protein and another protein that controls plant development. Maturation, the 60% trend seen in tomato plants with a single gene mutation, still occurs when a single copy of the florigen gene is present, thus suggesting that it may have heterosis properties.

In the future, geneticists working on harnessing heterosis and improving crop yield have planned on researching the effects of the single gene mutation more fully. Lippman comments, “Mutant plants are usually thrown away because of the notion that mutations would have negative effects on growth… our results indicate that breeding with hybrid mutations could prove to be a powerful new way to increase yields, not only in tomato, but all crops.”

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Original Press Release

Blood + Guts + Feathers = Biodiesel?

Dan Conant

As environmentalists continue to follow the model of ‘reduce, reuse, and recycle’ scientists continue to find ways of recycling waste products.  One of the newest developments in the recycling aspect of the slogan involves turning chicken feather meal into biodiesel fuel.  It is estimated that there is 11 billion pounds of poultry waste that is produced annually and just accumulates.  This is because chicken feathers are not able to be stuffed into pillows, so the feathers as well as the other waste products (the innards and blood) are turned into a low-grade animal feed.

The potential fuel source pre-dinner

Scientists in Nevada paid attention to the fact that chicken meal has a fat content of 12%.  To remove the fat from the chicken meal the meal is put in boiling water and then the fat is processed into biodiesel fuel.  This process is advantageous for the obvious environmental reason of providing another source of alternative fuel,  but by removing the fat from the chicken meal it actually makes the animal feed remains a higher grade and it also turns the chicken meal into being a better fertilizer. 

Based on the scientists production methods and the annual amount of chicken meal produced on a yearly basis it is estimated that within the U.S. 153 million gallons of biodiesel fuel could be made.  On a global scale there would be potential for creating 593 million gallons of biodiesel.  Although this is an outstanding number, it is relatively small compared to the amount of fuel consumed on a yearly basis which stands around 4 billion gallons.  Nonetheless, it is important for developments to continue in areas of recycling waste products.  If more developments are made, the millions of gallons will slowly add up and present themselves as a viable fuel alternative.

http://www.alternative-energy-news.info/fuel-from-chicken-feathers/

Going Bananas to Prevent HIV

By Nick Gubitosi

Two weeks ago (March 19, 2010), scientists from the University of Michigan published a study about an ingredient known as BanLec which is derived from bananas and acts as a potent inhibitor of the HIV virus.  What stands out about BanLec is that it is a cheaper form of therapy that may provide a wider range of protection when compared to current anti-retrovirals which are commonly synthetic and made ineffective after small mutations to the virus.  The cost and effectiveness of BanLec make it a promising candidate for the future prevention of HIV and AIDS, giving it the potential to save millions of lives.

BanLec is a type of lectin found in bananas that can identify foreign invaders such as a virus and attach to it.  A lectin is a naturally occurring chemical in plants that is of great interest to scientists because of its ability to halt the chain of reaction that leads to a variety of infections.  The researchers in this study discovered that BanLec inhibits HIV infection by binding to the virus’s protein envelope, therefore blocking it from entering the body.

According to Michael D. Swanson, the lead author of the study, “The problem with some HIV drugs is that the virus can mutate and become resistant, but that is much harder to do in the presence of lectins.”  He goes on to explain that the lectins work by binding to sugars found all over the envelope of the HIV virus, and because of this the virus would have to go through multiple mutations for the lectin to stop working.  This makes drugs such as BanLec more effective than some current anti-retrovirals which could become ineffective after one mutation to the virus.

So far all tests have been conducted in the laboratory, but Swanson is currently working on making BanLec suitable for human patients.  Its clinical use is still considered to be far away but researchers believe it could ultimately be used as a self applied microbicide for the prevention of HIV infection.

While BanLec is no cure to AIDS, the information gained from this study is very exciting because according to researchers, millions of lives could be saved over the course of a few years with just a moderately successful treatment.

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Little pests causing a large problem

By Nina Jean-Jacques

Mosquitoes are known to be annoying. There are more annoying in poverty stricken countries where they spread diseases. The major health issue concerning mosquitoes is the spread of malaria. Researchers at Case Western Reserve University are finding that a blood type in African populations no longer protects against a specific type of malarial infection. Sub-populations in African previously showed a resistance to P. vivax malaria by having a Duffy-negative blood type. Not having the Duffy blood protein disabled the parasite from infecting red blood cells. However, a study was performed on over 600 people from different communities in Madagascar and found that 10% of people exhibiting the disease were, in fact, Duffy-negative.

This new ability of infection in these populations may be due to population mixing. Many people from Southeast Asia now live in Madagascar. These Southeast Asians are Duffy-positive. The children of those from both Duffy-negative and Duffy-positive parents show susceptibility to infections. Peter A. Zimmerman, Ph.D ., a researcher at Case Western Reserve University states that “the study confirms that P. vivax is not dependent on the Duffy antigen for establishing blood-stage infection and disease in Madagascar.” This new finding has a great impact all over Africa, where this natural immunity is the best defense against P. vivax malaria. There are approximately three million new cases of P. vivax malaria infections reported every year.

When mosquitoes bite a person infected with the disease, the malaria causing parasite is taken in as well. The mosquito then bites a healthy person, injecting the parasite into the person’s blood stream. Malaria is one of the “big three” diseases in the world because the parasites are so easily spread. It is particularly endemic in Africa where treatment is limited. There are five types of parasites of parasites that cause malaria. Most anti-malaria campaigns focus on the P. falciparum malarial infection. New efforts must be put in place to fight the P. vivax infections.

(source)

An uncommon use for a common drug offers hope to millions of HIV-positive patients

By Liz H. ‘10

Microscopic view of HIV (green) emerging from an infected T-cell. CDC

A promising new HIV treatment has been discovered in an unlikely source:  a widely available acne medication developed in the 1970s.  A team of scientists from Johns Hopkins University reports that minocyclin stops HIV-infected human cells from reactivating and replicating, in a study published in the April 15th issue of the Journal of Infectious Diseases.  Their findings may lead to an improved and more effective treatment regimen for HIV infection.

The researchers focused their study on latent, non-replicating HIV-infected human T-cells.  T-cells are a type white blood cell that normally fights infection.  HIV infects T-cells and can “rest” inside of them for an extended period of time.  The virus does not harm the T-cell during this latent phase, but can eventually “wake-up” and re-activate the T-cell, which spreads HIV infection and weakens the immune system.

In this study, the scientists treated latent HIV-infected human T-cells with minocycline and measured the level of re-activated T-cells over time.  They also performed the same measurements on cells that were not treated with minocycline.  The researchers found that the minocycline-treated cells did not display detectable levels of reactivation while the untreated cells displayed elevated levels.

Upon closer analysis of the activity of minocycline inside of cells, the scientists discovered that the drug interferes with important cellular communication pathways that cause the T-cell to activate and spread HIV to other cells.  “It prevents the virus from escaping in the one in a million cells in which it lays dormant in a person…That’s the goal:  Sustaining a latent non-infectious state,” explains Gregory Szeto, a Hopkins graduate student who worked on the project.

These findings suggest that minocycline could be used in conjunction with HAART, the current HIV treatment standard, to keep the virus dormant inside of T-cells.  “While HAART is really effective in keeping down active replication, minocycline is another arm of defense against the virus,” says author Janice Clements.  Minocycline is an attractive addition to the current arsenal of HIV medications because it is relatively inexpensive, does not inhibit the ability of T-cells to fight other infections, and is not likely to cause viral drug resistance.

Current treatment for HIV/AIDS involves a combination therapy approach known as HAART.  Patients on HAART take at least 3 antiretroviral drugs daily that act on the virus in different ways to reduce its levels in the bloodstream.  Although HAART can extend the life of an infected individual, it is not a cure and causes unpleasant side effects and the development of drug resistance.  For the 40 million HIV-positive individuals worldwide, this new use for minocycline promises improved outcomes.

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Press Release

You Can’t Beat the Heat

Even when the body is able to maintain core body temperature, cardiovascular performance is decreased in the heat.

      Researchers from the American College of Sports Medicine conducted research in January 2010 that shows that environmental heat stress with only modest hyperthermia has a significant impact on aerobic endurance. This research is of importance to a military operating in a desert environment in which temperatures can exceed 120˚ F in the summer.

      Subjects were asked to perform fifteen minutes of cycling in a temperate (69˚F) or hot environment (104˚F). Core and skin temperature and heart rate were constantly monitored. Performance and pacing were analyzed by kJ of work completed. Core temperature was modestly elevated in both environments, with skin temperature being higher in the hot environment. While heart rate and fatigue level were consistent between the two environments, the total amount of work done in the hot environment was 17% less than in the temperate environment. Also, while the pace was maintained in the temperate climate, it dropped significantly over time in the hot environment.

      So, although excessive hyperthermia was avoided, performance was still impacted by the hot environment. While it has been established that marked hyperthermia leads to increased fatigue during exercise, it seems that a hot environment can increase fatigue even without significant increase in core temperature. There are a few theories about how this happens. One idea is that athletes use an anticipatory control mechanism during exercise to ensure maintenance of core body temperature by making unconscious adjustments in work rate. Increased cardiovascular strain resulting from the maintenance of high skin blood flow required to maintain core temperature may also explain the observed decrease in performance. So, impact aerobic ability in the heat may come from either an early modification of work output or an inability to maintain a desired work output over time. This study supported the idea that initial pace could not be maintained, as the participants in the hot group got much slower over time.

       It seems clear that cardiovascular performance is decreased in the heat even when the body is able to maintain core temperatures. Further research may elucidate whether an early modification of pace in the heat may minimize the overall decline in performance associated with environmental heat stress. This information can help athletes who must compete in the heat to pace themselves, and may also shed light on tactics the military can use to maintain optimum performance in hot climates.

 Nicole Myers

For more information visit: http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA513059&Location=U2&doc=GetTRDoc.pdf

Breathing Underwater

By: Kate Good

Off the shore of Washington and Oregon low oxygen levels in the Pacific has caused the death of hundreds of Dungeness crabs.  Like mammals, underwater species need oxygen to survive. In a recent study, marine researchers at Oregon State believe that the temperature increase associated with global climate change is directly linked to lowering oxygen levels in oceans.

Causes of Hypoxia

Areas of hypoxia (lacking oxygen) are common in the deep ocean, however, it appears that areas in the Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceans are spreading.  This phenomenon can be caused by the excess of nutrients within water, causing large increases of algae growth. As algae levels rise, the ability of sunlight to penetrate water decreases along with the amount of oxygen that can be dissolved. As algae die and breakdown they consume oxygen, if the oxygen is not replaced, the result is a dead zone.

Scientists believe that as water temperatures rise, the warm water on the surface acts as a cap, inhibiting the natural circulation patterns, disallowing deep waters from reaching the surface where it can be replenished with oxygen.

There is a delicate balance between upwelling and the ocean ecosystems, as this process provides many low dwelling species with oxygen. Scientists do not yet know the future implications that will follow with mass oxygen depletion. However, the large amount of dead Dungeness crab illustrates the dire consequences of oxygen depletion.

Marine Algae

Though hypoxia takes place in the deep ocean, humans play a large role in its occurrence.  After rain, or excessive watering, the fertilizers used on agricult

ural fields, golf courses, and suburban lawns runoff into lakes and streams that lead to major bodies of water.  The effect that fertilizer has on plants on land is the same with plants in the ocean, however, when underwater excessive plant growth has serious consequences.

Sources:

http://news.yahoo.com/s/mcclatchy/20100307/sc_mcclatchy/3444187_1;_ylt=Akn9Ml_HbwT6n4ol7reh6LzHSpZ4

http://toxics.usgs.gov/definitions/hypoxia.html

http://oceanservice.noaa.gov/products/pubs_hypox.html

Kicking it to good health

By Abby Larson
Photo from the study of women and soccer. Credit: Mikal Schlosser

In European countries, soccer is not just a sport; it’s a lifestyle. Now, soccer has joined the side of science.

Led by Professors Peter Krustrup and Jens Bangsbo at the University of Copenhagen’s Department of Exercise and Sports Sciences, over 50 researchers from 7 countries are finding out the benefits of soccer from a physical, psychological, and social perspective. Numerous articles will be published in the Scandinavian Journal of Medicine and Science in Sports on the effects of soccer on bone mass and bone density, standing postural balance, and muscle strength.   All of these can help reduce falls and bone fractures, especially in the elderly.

One of the studies had women aged 20-47 play soccer twice a week for 14 weeks. At the end of the time period, their leg bones and muscles were significantly denser and stronger. The same women, having never played soccer before, participated in a long term 16-week study showing that whole body bone mineral density was increased. The short and long-term effects found were higher than a similar study on the effects of running on bone and muscle mass. This is due to the combination of sprinting, long distance running, and high forces that act on the legs when cutting in soccer.

The benefits of soccer are not just for the young and middle aged. A study performed by the researchers showed that men in their 70s who have played recreational soccer most of their lives have much better muscle strength and balance than men of the same age who do not play soccer. They even had equal muscle strength and balance compared to untrained men in their 30s.

This cohort of studies can benefit men and women of all ages. The immediate effects of soccer may be beneficial to women going through menopause at risk for osteoporosis, since it quickly adds bone mineral density to the legs and improves balance. It can prevent falls and fractures in elderly men and women because it increases muscle mass and balance, especially in people who play soccer all their lives.

Funding for the projects comes from FIFA—Medical Assessment and Research Centre (F-MARC), The Danish Ministry of Culture, TrygFonden, United Federation of Danish Workers (3F), The Danish Football Association, Team Denmark and The Danish Sports Confederation. Future studies by Krustrup and Bangsbo include the effects of soccer on patients with diabetis and cancer, long-term effects on osteoporosis, and the cardiovascular and musculoskeletal effects on kids in youth soccer.