{"id":747,"date":"2020-05-11T19:14:19","date_gmt":"2020-05-11T19:14:19","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/food-experience\/?p=747"},"modified":"2020-05-11T19:14:19","modified_gmt":"2020-05-11T19:14:19","slug":"women-chefs-in-the-kitchen-and-media-analysis-of-differential-representation-and-experiences-along-the-gender-binary","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/food-experience\/2020\/05\/11\/women-chefs-in-the-kitchen-and-media-analysis-of-differential-representation-and-experiences-along-the-gender-binary\/","title":{"rendered":"Women Chefs in the Kitchen and Media: Analysis of Differential Representation and Experiences Along the Gender Binary"},"content":{"rendered":"

\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 For generations, the duties of care and provisioning for the family have been<\/p>\n

carried primarily by women. Food preparation, serving, and work within professional<\/p>\n

kitchens have fallen to women throughout history, yet the acclaim and credit has<\/p>\n

historically gone to men, with women facing discrimination and structural biases that<\/p>\n

their male counterparts do not contend with (Allen and Sachs 9). Women have<\/p>\n

historically served the primary roles of food preparation, yet the modern culinary<\/p>\n

industry remains predominantly male (Druckman 25). The disproportionate<\/p>\n

representation of female-identifying food workers permeates all levels of the food<\/p>\n

system yet is particularly noticeable within the modern restaurant kitchen and food<\/p>\n

media. This paper seeks to discuss the challenges faced by women chefs in the modern<\/p>\n

kitchen and food media, as well as the externalities brought about by the cultural<\/p>\n

structure of differential treatment and familial responsibility. It should be noted that<\/p>\n

this analysis will divide the kitchen along the traditional gender binary of \u201cmen\u201d and<\/p>\n

\u201cwomen\u201d and does not delve deeply into the experiences and disproportionate<\/p>\n

challenges faced by nonbinary and LGBTQIA+ individuals in the kitchen for sake of<\/p>\n

length and focus. The historical role of women as provisioners and caretakers within<\/p>\n

both the family unit and society as a whole has profound implications for the experience<\/p>\n

of women within the food chain. These effects are present within the professional<\/p>\n

kitchen, food media, and more broadly the food service industry as a whole. The<\/p>\n

differential treatment of women in these positions, alongside structural biases, have<\/p>\n

created a system which perpetuates discrepancies in representation and access for<\/p>\n

women across the food system today.<\/p>\n

\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 Prior to approaching the modern role of women within the restaurant kitchen<\/p>\n

and food media, it is critical to gain a topical understanding of the historical context<\/p>\n

behind these issues in order to inform our modern analysis. Women have occupied the<\/p>\n

primary role of food preparations for generations, yet traditionally, it is men who are<\/p>\n

highlighted as chef and awarded recognition and acclaim as a result of their work<\/p>\n

(Whitaker). The word chef itself is derived from the French chef de cuisine, meaning<\/p>\n

\u201chead of the kitchen\u201d, a term which is always conjugated in the male gender (Druckman<\/p>\n

25). The word chef itself, therefore, carries an inherently gendered meaning. Until<\/p>\n

recently, the prospects for women in the culinary sphere have been significantly limited,<\/p>\n

with one author proclaiming, \u201cin the late 1960s a career as an astronaut was considered<\/p>\n

more promising for a woman than that of chef,\u201d (Whitaker).<\/p>\n

\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 Women\u2019s role as culinary caretakers has historically coincided with the ethics of<\/p>\n

caretaking, with women performing the lion\u2019s share of food-related tasks while retaining<\/p>\n

little control, decision making power, or agency within the food industry as a whole<\/p>\n

(Harris and Guiffre 28). While bearing the responsibility for nourishing others, they<\/p>\n

often do not adequately nourish themselves as a result of the societal and systemic<\/p>\n

obstacles they face (Allen and Sachs 1).<\/p>\n

\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0We must also look to the historical role of food media, cookbooks, and<\/p>\n

advertising as it relates to women within the food system. Early cookbooks were<\/p>\n

primarily filled with recipes to serve a family on a budget, as well as to serve to impress<\/p>\n

your guests (Whitaker). Including substitutions for cooks without fully stocked pantries<\/p>\n

was common, and recipes were typically measured in less standard terms, using<\/p>\n

estimates and colloquialisms instead (Zafar 457). These books were primarily written by<\/p>\n

and for white women, but heavily influenced<\/p>\n

by African American foodways as African<\/p>\n

\"\"

Fig. 1 – Print marketing for Betty Crocker cake
mixes, which would eventually become the hallmark
of this character\u2019s identity. – \u201cVintage Betty Crocker:
Perfect Vintage Cake Recipe.\u201d Frugal SOS, Sara
Noel, 31 Aug. 2016, frugalsos.com\/vintagerecipes\/
perfect-cake-every-time\/.<\/p><\/div>\n

American women fulfilled a pivotal role<\/p>\n

within the white kitchen without recognition<\/p>\n

(Zafar 460).<\/p>\n

\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0In order to understand modern food<\/p>\n

media, we must look to early food marketing<\/p>\n

and advertising. One prominent media figure<\/p>\n

during this time was the fictional Betty<\/p>\n

Crocker, the spokeswoman for General Mills<\/p>\n

created in the 1930s (Shapiro 29) ;(see fig. 1,<\/p>\n

fig.2). During this time, Betty Crocker served<\/p>\n

as the integral link between the consumers<\/p>\n

and the corporatization of the<\/p>\n

American food system. As<\/p>\n

boxed food skyrocketed in<\/p>\n

popularity due to the<\/p>\n

convenience, low cost, and<\/p>\n

effective marketing, companies<\/p>\n

\"\"

Fig. 2. Vintage Betty Crocker marketing. This image highlights the stress
placed on making baking faster and simpler for the modern housewife. –
Morioka, Lynne, et al. \u201cVintage Ads for the Ladies.\u201d A Taste of General
Mills, 2 Sept. 2015, blog.generalmills.com\/2015\/08\/vintage-ads-for-theladies\/.<\/p><\/div>\n

such as General Mills required<\/p>\n

a human connection to their<\/p>\n

customers if they wanted to<\/p>\n

maintain the older view of home<\/p>\n

cooking (Shaprio 30). In response,<\/p>\n

these company figureheads were<\/p>\n

generated (interestingly, the majority<\/p>\n

were female) and featured heavily in<\/p>\n

advertising and media.<\/p>\n

Cakes were known as, and still are,<\/p>\n

one of the most difficult tasks a home<\/p>\n

cook can undertake, requiring time, a<\/p>\n

multitude of ingredients, and lots of patience. Betty Crocker cake mix was General Mills\u2019<\/p>\n

ingenious response to this realization and was marketed extensively across the US in both<\/p>\n

print ads, columns, and radio advertisements (Shapiro 38). This effective marketing strategy<\/p>\n

and convenient new products planted Betty Crocker squarely into the American psyche, with<\/p>\n

surveys conducted by General Mills indicating that by the early 1950s, 99% of American<\/p>\n

housewives were familiar with the Betty Crocker name and line of products (Shapiro<\/p>\n

33). Through building Betty Crocker into a household name, General Mills were not<\/p>\n

only able to effectively aid their large consumer base in the transition into the new<\/p>\n

methods of fast food preparation, but also played part in creating a cultural icon which<\/p>\n

linked femininity to household duties, entertainment cooking, and subservience. These<\/p>\n

themes are still present in the modern portrayal of women in food media.<\/p>\n

\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0Moving forwards into modern analysis, it is clear that the very foundations of<\/p>\n

the restaurant kitchen create a highly gendered space with different connotations for its<\/p>\n

male and female occupants. These structures affect women who work in the demanding<\/p>\n

and male-dominated modern restaurant kitchen, fostering a workplace culture which<\/p>\n

makes hazing and other discrimination against women commonplace (Harris and<\/p>\n

Guiffre 28). The division of the modern restaurant kitchen into \u201chot\u201d and \u201ccold\u201d section<\/p>\n

frequently is a visual reminder of the separation of men and women within the<\/p>\n

restaurant industry. The hot side of the kitchen, with stoves, grills, ovens, and<\/p>\n

preparation stations tends to be male dominated while women primarily occupied the<\/p>\n

cold side, responsible for pastries, soups, and sauces (Harris and Guiffre 32). This<\/p>\n

divide coincides with the francocentric levels of essentialism in culinary personnel,<\/p>\n

placing women in these spaces at a disadvantage in terms of opportunity for growth and<\/p>\n

diversification within the culinary field (Druckman 22). In these male-dominated<\/p>\n

environments, a common presumption of women\u2019s lack of desire or ability to compete<\/p>\n

worsens the divide, resulting in increased harassment and discredit being reflected upon<\/p>\n

women than that faced by their male peers (Druckman 30).<\/p>\n

\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0These structural biases extend beyond the kitchen itself and into the sphere of<\/p>\n

restaurant management and executives, with women occupying the lowest rungs of<\/p>\n

management across the American restaurant industry, and generally are hired for<\/p>\n

positions in which they supervise other women (Petrick 55). Women are afforded<\/p>\n

proportionately less decision-making power than their male counterparts in comparable<\/p>\n

positions and receive less pay (Petrick 55). The value of education and training is<\/p>\n

another factor affecting the ability of women to occupy executive positions. Existing<\/p>\n

training programs intended to develop employees interested in \u201cworking their way up\u201d<\/p>\n

to management are not sufficient, and are often under-used by women in particular,<\/p>\n

who often do not utilize these programs for fear of not being seen as dedicated to the<\/p>\n

current management of their facilities (Cobble 7). Women who applied and were denied<\/p>\n

executive positions often held at least a four-year college degree, falling victim to the so called<\/p>\n

\u201csticky floor\u201d narrative which recognizes that while there is growth in the<\/p>\n

availability of high-paying executive jobs for women, the sheer volume of women in low paying<\/p>\n

industry jobs limits the mobility they are afforded (Petrick 58).<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Women in the restaurant industry and more broadly the food system as a whole<\/p>\n

are also burdened by the gendered landscape of the heteronormative family. Childrearing<\/p>\n

and family care duties often fall to women even when they are employed in the<\/p>\n

demanding and male-dominated restaurant industry (Maume et. al 990). Women<\/p>\n

experience increased pressure to work long and irregular hours, while simultaneously<\/p>\n

under-utilizing programs designed to balance work and family due to the need, whether<\/p>\n

real or perceived, to show continuous commitment and dedication to both their careers<\/p>\n

and the institution by which they are employed (Cobble 10). When returning home<\/p>\n

women are still responsible for the continued labor associated with provisioning and<\/p>\n

care of their families, irrespective of class, culture, or ethnicity (Allen and Sachs 2).<\/p>\n

\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0Despite the shifting status quo of the family, gender and family scholars continue<\/p>\n

to argue that \u201cmen\u2019s greater power within families, deriving from higher earnings in the<\/p>\n

labor market, effectively shields them from domestic work (Maume et. al 993). This<\/p>\n

feeding work, primarily undertaken by women, is unpaid and often goes unrecognized,<\/p>\n

despite requiring significant mental, physical, and emotional labor. Women working in<\/p>\n

food service also get significantly less sleep than men in similar positions, and also<\/p>\n

experience more sleep disruption than men employed in the same industry (Maume et.<\/p>\n

al 995). As women age, their sleep also becomes more disrupted, a phenomenon which<\/p>\n

is not mirrored in their male counterparts (Maume et. al 995). The compounding effects<\/p>\n

of being under-rested, underpaid, and overworked leave women bearing a<\/p>\n

disproportionate burden when trying to balance work and family life. These structural<\/p>\n

biases within the family reinforce the roles of subservience that women are occupying all<\/p>\n

too-frequently within the restaurant kitchen (Allen and Sachs 4).<\/p>\n

\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 The representation of women in food media, as well as the ways in which<\/p>\n

advertising, marketing, and the media shape the psyche of modern women must also be<\/p>\n

discussed. While fictional culinary icons such as Betty Crocker have fallen to the<\/p>\n

wayside and male chefs are commonly<\/p>\n

the recipients of major awards,<\/p>\n

accolades, and Michelin stars, the<\/p>\n

modern culinary media is full of<\/p>\n

\"\"

Fig. 3. Gordon Ramsay, hot-headed chef of Hell\u2019s Kitchen and
Michelin acclaim. – \u201cHell’s Kitchen with Gordon Ramsay –
Watch Episodes.\u201d FOX, www.fox.com\/hells-kitchen\/<\/p><\/div>\n

women (Druckman 27). However<\/p>\n

prevalent the representation of<\/p>\n

women chefs in cooking media may be<\/p>\n

today, the portrayal of these women<\/p>\n

stands in stark contrast to their male<\/p>\n

counterparts. On one end of the<\/p>\n

spectrum you have Gordon Ramsay<\/p>\n

(Fig. 3) cursing and literally throwing<\/p>\n

inadequate dishes in Hell\u2019s Kitchen,<\/p>\n

while on the other Ina Garten of<\/p>\n

\"\"

Fig. 4. Ina Garten, the comforting and motherly Barefoot
Contessa. – \u201cBarefoot Contessa.\u201d Food Network,
www.foodnetwork.com\/shows\/barefoot-contessa.<\/p><\/div>\n

Barefoot Contessa fame (Fig. 4)<\/p>\n

prepares family-style dishes, shares.<\/p>\n

cocktail tips, and tags every episode<\/p>\n

with the line \u201chow easy is that?\u201d. These<\/p>\n

two very different representations can<\/p>\n

be linked to the differential experiences<\/p>\n

of men and women in the professional<\/p>\n

kitchen, and perpetuate the division<\/p>\n

between men as fiery, passionate, and<\/p>\n

hotheaded chefs and women as comforting, domestic goddesses who focus primarily on<\/p>\n

family-style and entertaining (Druckman 29). This presentation of women in cooking media<\/p>\n

reinforces the gender binary which exists both within the restaurant industry and the<\/p>\n

heteronormative family, with women placed into a role of subservience and provisioning<\/p>\n

for families and yet still noting just how easy it is to fulfill these ideal roles (Allen and<\/p>\n

Sachs 3).<\/p>\n

\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0The pressure faced by women to fulfill the ideal image promoted by the media,<\/p>\n

specifically food media, has created a complex relationship between many women, food,<\/p>\n

and their bodies. By exploiting what is referred to as \u201cdeliberate and reoccurring<\/p>\n

manipulations of issues women face in their real lives,\u201d the media is able to create an<\/p>\n

image which women strive for, which contributes to the massive influence of diet culture<\/p>\n

as well as the increased incidence of eating disorders (Allen and Sachs 3). This influence<\/p>\n

permeates the majority of American media and affects women regardless if they are<\/p>\n

employed in the food system or not. In fact, the average woman sees between 400-600<\/p>\n

advertisements per day, totaling more than 250,000 messages by her 17th <\/span>birthday<\/p>\n

(Allen and Sachs 10). These advertisements strongly influence the concept of the ideal<\/p>\n

body in mainstream media, with an obsessive focus on thinness and dieting, and<\/p>\n

contribute to the transformation fantasy which plagues women and young girls alike<\/p>\n

(Allen and Sachs 2).<\/p>\n

Women\u2019s roles in the food system are undeniably complicated, and vary widely<\/p>\n

depending on class, employment, and economic status. However, an undercurrent of<\/p>\n

differential treatment and structural obstacles carries significant implications in the<\/p>\n

lives of women involved in the industry. Women bear disproportionate stressors of food<\/p>\n

provisioning and family care compared to their male counterparts and face increased<\/p>\n

hazing and discrimination as a result of the francocentric nature of the restaurant<\/p>\n

kitchen. These systematic and structural biases can be observed throughout history,<\/p>\n

from the days of Betty Crocker to the modern representation of female chefs in media<\/p>\n

today. Women experience differential treatment and disproportionate barriers to<\/p>\n

success within the food system as a result of both structural biases and the historical<\/p>\n

duties and roles traditionally associated with femininity, and without continued efforts<\/p>\n

to level the playing field and reduce these biases will continue to be underrepresented<\/p>\n

and underappreciated for their efforts in and contributions to the food system as a<\/p>\n

whole.<\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

 <\/p>\n

Works Cited<\/strong><\/p>\n

Allen, Patricia, and Carolyn Sachs. \u201cWomen and Food Chains: The Gendered Politics of<\/p>\n

Food.\u201d International Journal of Sociology of Food and Agriculture<\/em>, vol. 15, Apr. 2007.<\/p>\n

Shapiro, Laura. \u201c\u2018I Guarantee\u2019: Betty Crocker and the Woman in the Kitchen.\u201d From Betty<\/em><\/p>\n

Crocker to Feminist Food Studies: Critical Perspectives on Women and Food<\/em>, edited by<\/p>\n

Arlene Voski Avakian and Barbara Haber, University of Massachusetts Press, 2005, pp.<\/p>\n

29\u201340, www.jstor.org\/stable\/j.ctt5vk2tn.6. Accessed 26 Apr. 2020.<\/p>\n

Cobble, Dorothy Sue. \u201c\u2018Practical Women.\u2019\u201d Labor History<\/em>, vol. 29, no. 1, Winter 1988, pp. 5\u2013<\/p>\n

31. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1080\/00236568800890011.<\/p>\n

Druckman, Charlotte. \u201cWhy Are There No Great Women Chefs?\u201d Gastronomica<\/em> 10.1 (2010);<\/p>\n

pp 24- 31.<\/p>\n

Harris, Deborah A., and Patti Giuffre. “\u201cThe price you pay\u201d: how female professional chefs<\/p>\n

negotiate work and family.” Gender Issues<\/em> 27.1-2 (2010): 27-52.<\/p>\n

Harris, Deborah Ann., and Patti Giuffre. Taking the Heat Women Chefs and Gender Inequality <\/em><\/p>\n

in the Professional Kitchen<\/em>. Rutgers University Press, 2015.<\/p>\n

Maume, David J., Rachel A. Sebastian, and Anthony R. Bardo. “Gender differences in sleep<\/p>\n

disruption among retail food workers.” American Sociological Review<\/em> 74.6 (2009): 989-<\/p>\n

1007.<\/p>\n

Petrick, Gabriella. \u201cLonely at the Top: Women Food-Service Executives.\u201d Cornell Hotel and<\/em><\/p>\n

Restaurant Administration Quarterly<\/em>, vol. 39, no. 3, Sage Publications, June 1998, pp.<\/p>\n

54\u201359, doi:10.1177\/001088049803900311.<\/p>\n

Whitaker, Jan. \u201cFrom Patrons to Chefs, a History of Women in Restaurants.\u201d Boston <\/em><\/p>\n

Hospitality Review<\/em>, vol. 3, no. 3, School of Hospitality Administration, Aug. 2015,<\/p>\n

https:\/\/doaj.org\/article\/11c5fde92a9c4ea59baa5558346ca8b5.<\/p>\n

Zafar, Rafia. \u201cThe Signifying Dish: Autobiography and History in Two Black Women’s<\/p>\n

Cookbooks.\u201d Feminist Studies<\/em>, vol. 25, no. 2, 1999, pp. 449\u2013469. JSTOR,<\/p>\n

www.jstor.org\/stable\/3178690. Accessed 17 Apr. 2020.<\/p>\n

Images:<\/strong><\/p>\n

Fig. 1. \u201cVintage Betty Crocker: Perfect Vintage Cake Recipe.\u201d Frugal SOS, Sara Noel, 31 Aug.<\/p>\n

2016, frugalsos.com\/vintage-recipes\/perfect-cake-every-time\/.<\/p>\n

Fig. 2. Morioka, Lynne, et al. \u201cVintage Ads for the Ladies.\u201d A Taste of General Mills, 2 Sept.<\/p>\n

2015, blog.generalmills.com\/2015\/08\/vintage-ads-for-the-ladies\/.<\/p>\n

Fig 3. \u201cHell’s Kitchen with Gordon Ramsay – Watch Episodes.\u201d FOX,<\/p>\n

www.fox.com\/hellskitchen\/<\/p>\n

Fig. 4. \u201cBarefoot Contessa.\u201d Food Network, www.foodnetwork.com\/shows\/barefoot-contessa.<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

\u00a0 \u00a0 \u00a0 For generations, the duties of care and provisioning for the family have been carried primarily by women. Food preparation, serving, and work within professional kitchens have fallen to women throughout history, yet the acclaim and credit has historically gone to men, with women facing discrimination and structural biases that their male counterparts […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":4225,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"open","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[244341],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-747","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-hannah-findling","post-preview"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/food-experience\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/747","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/food-experience\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/food-experience\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/food-experience\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/4225"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/food-experience\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=747"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/food-experience\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/747\/revisions"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/food-experience\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=747"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/food-experience\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=747"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/food-experience\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=747"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}