{"id":5845,"date":"2022-04-20T18:21:55","date_gmt":"2022-04-20T18:21:55","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-118pinsker\/?p=5845"},"modified":"2022-07-05T22:12:12","modified_gmt":"2022-07-05T22:12:12","slug":"research-post-4","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-118pinsker\/2022\/04\/20\/research-post-4\/","title":{"rendered":"Everyday Life in America During the World War II Era"},"content":{"rendered":"<p>By Abby Marthins<\/p>\n<p><iframe loading=\"lazy\" title=\"YouTube video player\" src=\"https:\/\/www.youtube.com\/embed\/ixRZARRP6Rc\" width=\"560\" height=\"315\" frameborder=\"0\" allowfullscreen=\"allowfullscreen\"><\/iframe><\/p>\n<p>In the heart of World War II, Jackie Loftus was only a child. She lived in Philadelphia with her mother, father, and older sister. When the war ended in 1945, she was just three years old. Although Loftus does not recall the war itself, she grew up hearing about her parents\u2019 experiences. Both her mother and her father aided in the war effort. \u201cMy dad made gun shellings,\u201d she explains, \u201cand my mom stayed home. She was working for the soldiers, doing the cooking.\u201d[1] Loftus does remember, however, how the war\u2019s long-term effects impacted her childhood. She grew up practicing air raid drills and witnessing her family struggle to acquire enough food. \u201cMy mom was so hungry,\u201d she claims, \u201cand they didn\u2019t have bacon or ham, so she would make onion sandwiches.\u201d[2] While Loftus\u2019s recollection adds depth to H.W. Brands\u2019s description in <em>American Dreams<\/em> of everyday life in America during the World War II era, it also highlights several aspects that Brands overlooks.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_6134\" style=\"width: 299px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.gettyimages.no\/detail\/news-photo\/one-american-female-worker-drives-rivets-into-an-aircraft-news-photo\/3201751?et=u7rIWNoPQt9YERSg_tZzKw\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-6134\" class=\"wp-image-6134\" src=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-118pinsker\/files\/2022\/04\/Screen-Shot-2022-05-12-at-10.15.17-AM-300x233.png\" alt=\"Two women work at an airplane assembly line\" width=\"289\" height=\"229\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-6134\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Women work at an airplane assembly line (Getty Images)<\/p><\/div>\n<p>World War II created many jobs for women. Although women had been in the work force prior to the war, their options were limited and did not require physical labor. When men left to serve in the war, their previous occupations became vacant, giving women the opportunity to step in. Brands claims that \u201cduring World War II women took jobs in shipyards and drydocks, on truck and airplane assembly lines, on road and bridge construction crews, among the girders and scaffolding of building sites.\u201d[3] Brands\u2019s interpretation aligns with Loftus\u2019s recollection of women working during World War II. Loftus remembers, \u201cMy sister\u2026knew somebody that did riveting\u2026she worked in a factory. I guess it was for planes. The metal where they would rivet something together.\u201d[4] This woman worked at an airplane assembly line, which became one of the most popular occupations among women in the war era. According to Kari. A Cornell in <em>Women on the US Home Front<\/em>, \u201cIn the years before the war, women made up a mere 1 percent of workers in this industry. By 1943, that number had skyrocketed to 65 percent.\u201d[5] Brands also mentions that women had different motives for entering the work force during the war. \u201cFor some women the jobs were simply jobs, a means to put food on the table and a roof over the heads of themselves and their families,\u201d he evaluates, \u201cFor others the new opportunities signaled an important advance toward gender equality.\u201d[6] When asked about her sister\u2019s acquaintance\u2019s motive for getting a job at an airplane assembly line, Loftus mentions that she \u201cwas married with children and probably wanted to help support her family.\u201d[7] Loftus confirms Brands\u2019s analysis of women seeking jobs to support their families.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_6135\" style=\"width: 316px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-6135\" class=\"wp-image-6135\" src=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-118pinsker\/files\/2022\/04\/Screen-Shot-2022-05-11-at-2.02.57-PM-300x183.png\" alt=\"Woman installs boards in her windows to block light during a blackout drill\" width=\"306\" height=\"193\" \/><p id=\"caption-attachment-6135\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Woman prepares for a blackout drill (Women on the US Home Front)<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Another result of World War II was the incorporation of safety drills in homes and schools. In fear of being attacked, the government ordered blackout drills and air-raid drills. During blackout drills, all lights were to be turned off. In the case of a bombing, people thought that aircraft would have a difficult time locating a city without light. There were many rules that civilians had to follow during these blackout drills. Newspapers, such as The <em>Philadelphia Tribune<\/em>, reiterated some of the regulations. \u201cPersons are permitted to move about or sit on steps or porches during the blue period but not during the red alert,\u201d the <em>Philadelphia Tribune<\/em> stated, \u201cSmoking is permitted during blue periods, but smokers are not permitted to light matches or lighters. No smoking is permitted during the red alert.\u201d[8] Loftus recalls participating in blackout drills. She explains, \u201cWhen sirens went off\u2026all the homes in the city had dark shades you\u2019d pull down. They called them black shades. And you couldn\u2019t have any light really coming through.\u201d[9] Not only were there blackout drills, but people practiced air-raid drills in homes and schools. At home, families were encouraged to practice hiding under tables. Many families created supply kits and plans for shelter in case of an air raid. At schools, when an air-raid drill was in place, students were instructed to sit under their desks or against the wall in the hallway. \u201cWhen we were in school after the war,\u201d Loftus recalls, \u201cthere were rules that you had to follow. If the sirens went off while you were in class, you would hide under the desk\u2026And it was a little scary\u2026\u201d[10] Loftus remembers the air-raid drills in a similar manner to Barbara Williams Roberts, who attended an elementary school in Clinton, New York during the war. She explains, \u201cIt was scary. I was still in grade school, and I remember hearing an airplane and looking up to see what it was. I think I expected the Japanese to bomb Clinton.\u201d[11] Loftus and Roberts agree that the safety drills were a frightening and memorable aspect of everyday life during and after the war, but Brands fails to mention it.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_6142\" style=\"width: 310px\" class=\"wp-caption alignright\"><a href=\"https:\/\/www.loc.gov\/item\/2017850484\/\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-6142\" class=\"wp-image-6142 size-medium\" src=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-118pinsker\/files\/2022\/04\/Screen-Shot-2022-05-12-at-10.40.28-AM-300x296.png\" alt=\"Citizens wait outside of their local War Rationing Board office\" width=\"300\" height=\"296\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-118pinsker\/files\/2022\/04\/Screen-Shot-2022-05-12-at-10.40.28-AM-300x296.png 300w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-118pinsker\/files\/2022\/04\/Screen-Shot-2022-05-12-at-10.40.28-AM-768x758.png 768w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-118pinsker\/files\/2022\/04\/Screen-Shot-2022-05-12-at-10.40.28-AM-304x300.png 304w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-118pinsker\/files\/2022\/04\/Screen-Shot-2022-05-12-at-10.40.28-AM.png 894w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-6142\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Citizens wait outside of their local War Rationing Board office (Library of Congress)<\/p><\/div>\n<p>Rationing was also a major result of World War II. With the nation at war, there was a high demand for many basic supplies like food, metal, paper, and gasoline. To combat the high demand for these supplies, the government initiated a rationing program that limited Americans\u2019 purchases. Each person was allotted \u201cpoints\u201d in the form of stamps in a book. With each purchase, a person would have to hand over points. According to the National World War II Museum, \u201cBy the end of the war, about 5,600 local rationing boards staffed by over 100,000 citizen volunteers were administering the program.\u201d[12] Loftus remembers this program. She remarks, \u201cThe government issued coupons. They were called ration coupons. And if you went to the store, you could only get maybe a small portion of butter or gas. So, it was the government controlling what you bought.\u201d[13] One of the first items to be rationed was tires. Then gasoline and bicycles were rationed. Finally, sugar (which would be rationed until 1947), coffee, canned goods, meat, cheese, milk, butter, and other fats were rationed. Although rationing created a lack of supplies, it also allowed for creativity and the rise in certain products. In particular, \u201cMacaroni and cheese became a nationwide sensation because it was cheap, filling, and required very few ration points. Kraft sold some 50 million boxes of its macaroni and cheese product during the war.\u201d[14] Rationing was also complicated; newspapers, classes, and government organizations helped Americans. <em>The Philadelphia Inquirer Public Ledger<\/em> included a \u201cRationing Calendar\u201d to assist Americans. The section read, \u201cHere are the dates which it is important for you to remember in connection with the rationing program.\u201d[15] It then listed several items and the expiration dates of their ration coupons. Brands does not include any details about the rationing program, even though it was a significant aspect of many Americans\u2019 everyday lives.<\/p>\n<div id=\"attachment_6139\" style=\"width: 329px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"><a href=\"https:\/\/envoy.dickinson.edu\/login?qurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fhistorical-newspapers%2Fmake-city-backyards-into-victory-garden-plots%2Fdocview%2F531669058%2Fse-2%3Faccountid%3D10506\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-6139\" class=\"wp-image-6139\" src=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-118pinsker\/files\/2022\/04\/Screen-Shot-2022-05-11-at-12.49.09-PM-300x226.png\" alt=\"Diagram of a garden plot from the Philadelphia Tribune \" width=\"319\" height=\"244\" \/><\/a><p id=\"caption-attachment-6139\" class=\"wp-caption-text\">Diagram of a garden plot from the Philadelphia Tribune (Proquest)<\/p><\/div>\n<p>When the government incorporated the rationing program, it also encouraged many Americans to create gardens. These gardens were called \u201cVictory gardens\u201d and their outputs helped manage the shortage of food. According to the US Department of Agriculture, \u201c9 to 10 million short tons of fruits and vegetables were harvested from Victory gardens during the war years\u2014the same amount of veggies grown on commercial farms during that period.\u201d[16] Loftus\u2019s family participated in creating Victory gardens. \u201cThey\u2019d make vegetables,\u201d she describes, \u201cI remember my uncle\u2026he planted a lot of stuff like corn, watermelon, all kinds of stuff.\u201d[17] Even Americans in cities were able to create Victory gardens. Places like San Francisco, Chicago, New Orleans, and Philadelphia were all homes to a plethora of Victory gardens. Living in Philadelphia, Loftus remembers what Victory gardens were like in cities. She explains, \u201cSome people in the city didn\u2019t have yards to plant stuff but they would have open fields and any place where they could plant stuff.\u201d[18] The newspapers were also a source of information for and encouragement of Victory gardens. <em>The Philadelphia Tribune<\/em> included a section titled \u201cMake City Backyards into \u2018Victory\u2019 Garden Plots\u201d in which it embedded a diagram of a garden plot and gave advice such as \u201cbe sure to leave some space between the rows so that you may cultivate the plants.\u201d[19] <em>The Philadelphia Tribune<\/em> also encouraged Americans to create Victory gardens by setting goals and holding contests. It read, \u201cLast year 20 million gardens produced 8 million tons of food\u2026the Victory garden goal for this year is 22 million gardens to grow 10 million tons of food,\u201d[20] and \u201cConforming with the wish to the government, that amateur gardeners be encouraged to make more Victory gardens this year, the Tribune is inaugurating its second annual Victory garden contest.\u201d[21] Victory gardens were an important part of everyday life for a lot of Americans; however, they are not mentioned by Brands.<\/p>\n<p>Loftus\u2019s recollection of everday life in America during World War II offers a lot more detail than Brands\u2019s <em>American Dreams<\/em>. With a limited amount of space to discuss a large part of American history, it is easy to overlook many aspects. Since Brands focuses on the political perspective when discussing World War II, he is bound to omit the personal aspects of the war. Although Brands fails to consider the challenges of the home front during the war, the harsh emotions felt by many American should not be disregarded. \u201cTimes were really hard,\u201d[22] Loftus remembers. \u201cIt was a really tough time,\u201d[23] she mentions again.<\/p>\n<p>[1] Zoom interview with Jackie Loftus, April 28, 2022.<\/p>\n<p>[2] Zoom interview with Jackie Loftus, April 28, 2022.<\/p>\n<p>[3] H.W. Brands,\u00a0<em>American Dreams: The United States Since 1945\u00a0<\/em>(New York: Penguin Books, 2010), 13.<\/p>\n<p>[4] Zoom interview with Jackie Loftus, April 28, 2022.<\/p>\n<p>[5] Kari A. Cornell, <em>Women on the US Home Front<\/em> (Minneapolis: Abdo Publishing, 2016), 34.<\/p>\n<p>[6] Brands, 13.<\/p>\n<p>[7] Email interview with Jackie Loftus, May 4, 2022.<\/p>\n<p>[8] &#8220;Blackout Rules.&#8221;<em>\u00a0Philadelphia Tribune<\/em>, Jul 17, 1943, pp. 9<em>. ProQuest<\/em>, <a href=\"https:\/\/envoy.dickinson.edu\/login?qurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fhistorical-newspapers%2Fblackout-rules%2Fdocview%2F531732531%2Fse-2%3Faccountid%3D10506\">https:\/\/envoy.dickinson.edu\/login?qurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fhistorical-newspapers%2Fblackout-rules%2Fdocview%2F531732531%2Fse-2%3Faccountid%3D10506<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>[9] Zoom interview with Jackie Loftus, April 28, 2022.<\/p>\n<p>[10] Zoom interview with Jackie Loftus, April 28, 2022.<\/p>\n<p>[11] Quoted in Cornell, 26.<\/p>\n<p>[12] \u201cRationing.\u201d <em>The National WWII Museum<\/em>, 2018, <a href=\"http:\/\/www.nationalww2museum.org\/war\/articles\/rationing\">www.nationalww2museum.org\/war\/articles\/rationing<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>[13] Zoom interview with Jackie Loftus, April 28, 2022.<\/p>\n<p>[14] \u201cRationing.\u201d <em>The National WWII Museum<\/em>, 2018, <a href=\"http:\/\/www.nationalww2museum.org\/war\/articles\/rationing\">www.nationalww2museum.org\/war\/articles\/rationing<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>[15] &#8220;December 23, 1942.&#8221;<em>\u00a0The Philadelphia Inquirer Public Ledger (1934-1969)<\/em>, Dec 23, 1942, pp. 9<em>. ProQuest<\/em>, <a href=\"https:\/\/envoy.dickinson.edu\/login?qurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fhistorical-newspapers%2Fdecember-23-1942-page-9-38%2Fdocview%2F1833143557%2Fse-2%3Faccountid%3D10506\">https:\/\/envoy.dickinson.edu\/loginqurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fhistorical-newspapers%2Fdecember-23-1942-page-9-38%2Fdocview%2F1833143557%2Fse-2%3Faccountid%3D10506<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>[16] Cornell, 44.<\/p>\n<p>[17] Zoom interview with Jackie Loftus, April 28, 2022.<\/p>\n<p>[18] Zoom interview with Jackie Loftus, April 28, 2022.<\/p>\n<p>[19] &#8220;Make City Backyards into \u2018Victory\u2019 Garden Plots: Improve the Poor Soil with Ashes, Fertilizer; it&#8217;s Work but Full, Too.&#8221;<em>\u00a0Philadelphia Tribune (1912-)<\/em>, Mar 13, 1943, pp. 8<em>. ProQuest<\/em>, <a href=\"https:\/\/envoy.dickinson.edu\/login?qurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fhistorical-newspapers%2Fmake-city-backyards-into-victory-garden-plots%2Fdocview%2F531669058%2Fse-2%3Faccountid%3D10506\">https:\/\/envoy.dickinson.edu\/login?qurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fhistorical-newspapers%2Fmake-city-backyards-into-victory-garden-plots%2Fdocview%2F531669058%2Fse-2%3Faccountid%3D10506<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>[20] &#8220;22 Million Gardens Victory Garden Goal.&#8221;<em>\u00a0Philadelphia Tribune (1912-)<\/em>, Mar 18, 1944, pp. 7<em>. ProQuest<\/em>, <a href=\"https:\/\/envoy.dickinson.edu\/login?qurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fhistorical-newspapers%2F22-million-gardens-victory-garden-goal%2Fdocview%2F531741123%2Fse-2%3Faccountid%3D10506\">https:\/\/envoy.dickinson.edu\/loginqurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fhistorical-newspapers%2F22-million-gardens-victory-garden-goal%2Fdocview%2F531741123%2Fse-2%3Faccountid%3D10506<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>[21] &#8220;It is again! the Tribune 2nd Annual Victory Garden Contest: For all the Backyard Gardeners.&#8221;<em>\u00a0Philadelphia Tribune (1912-)<\/em>, Mar 11, 1944, pp. 8<em>. ProQuest<\/em>, <a href=\"https:\/\/envoy.dickinson.edu\/login?qurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fhistorical-newspapers%2Fis-again-tribune-2nd-annual-victory-garden%2Fdocview%2F531694564%2Fse-2%3Faccountid%3D10506\">https:\/\/envoy.dickinson.edu\/login?qurl=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fhistorical-newspapers%2Fis-again-tribune-2nd-annual-victory-garden%2Fdocview%2F531694564%2Fse-2%3Faccountid%3D10506<\/a>.<\/p>\n<p>[22] Zoom interview with Jackie Loftus, April 28, 2022.<\/p>\n<p>[23] Zoom interview with Jackie Loftus, April 28, 2022.<\/p>\n<p><strong>Americans&#8217; Personal and Work Life During World War II<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>By Abby Marthins<\/p>\n<p>&#8220;But during World War II women took jobs in shipyards and drydocks, on truck and airplane assembly lines, on road and bridge construction crews, among the girders and scaffolding of building sites.&#8221; (H. W. Brands, American Dreams, p. 13)<\/p>\n<p><strong>Interview Subject<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Jackie Loftus, age 79, who recalls changes to personal and work life in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania during World War II<\/p>\n<p><strong>Interviews<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>&#8211;Zoom Call, April 28, 2022<\/p>\n<p><strong>Selected Transcript<\/strong><\/p>\n<p>Q: What was your family life like during World War II?<\/p>\n<p>A: \u201cWorld War II. My mom, at the beginning of the war, she was 28. Any my dad was 31. At the end of the war my mom was 34 and my dad was 37. And my sister wasn\u2019t born in the beginning of the war, but at the end of the war she was five years old. \u00a0And I wasn\u2019t born in the beginning of the war, but I was three years old. So my mom stayed home. She was working for the soldiers, doing the cooking. Well, she was busy with two kids, not like your mom with seven.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>Q: Were there any major changes to peoples&#8217; daily lives?<\/p>\n<p>A: &#8220;Times were really hard&#8230;you couldn\u2019t buy meat, you couldn\u2019t get butter. And the government issued coupons. They were called ration coupons. And if you went to the store you could only get maybe a small portion of butter or gas. So it was the government controlling what you bought during that time because everything was a really tough time. For example, not everybody would get gas for their cars&#8230;it was like sacred. There wasn\u2019t much available.&#8221;<\/p>\n<p>Q: How would you get these ration coupons?<\/p>\n<p>A: &#8220;My dad worked in a steel mill and they converted part of the steel mill to make ammo. My dad made gun shellings. He would make cannon shelling for the big tanks\u2026out of steel. And he got coupons to go to work so he was lucky.&#8221;<\/p>\n<p>A: &#8220;And also the women at home would have what they called \u2018victory gardens.\u2019 Everybody grew everything. From seed, vegetables, tomatoes, potatoes. And if you didn\u2019t have a yard, like some people in the city didn\u2019t have yards to plant stuff, but they would have open fields and any place where they could plant stuff. A lot of the people, and older men too I guess that weren\u2019t involved in the war, they would help out with the victory gardens. They\u2019d make vegetables, and even, I remember my uncle, my mom was telling me that he had a big yard so he planted a lot of stuff, like corn, watermelon, all kinds of stuff. But he also raised rabbits because meat was scarce. So they would eat rabbits. And the other thing is he would also sell them to people because meat was scarce. And I remember my mom saying that sometimes she was so hungry they didn\u2019t have bacon or ham, she would make onion sandwiches. People were a lot thinner then.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>Q: What types of jobs did people have?<\/p>\n<p>A: &#8220;Children worked at that time. I was talking to my sister and I talked to Uncle Dick, my sister\u2019s husband, that him and his friend went out in the neighborhood and they took a wagon going from house to house looking for metal because they would save metal to melt down and use for something else. And I remember as a kid, it wasn\u2019t during the war, but they saved everything at that time. Nothing went to waste. They had this man that would come around and he would collect rags. I could never figure out why he was saving rags or what they used them for. It was weird. But he would go through the streets and yell \u2018Any old rags, any old rags!\u2019 I don\u2019t know what he did with them but that\u2019s what I remember. And Aunt Jeanette, she would knit socks for the soldiers. And did you ever hear the word \u2018Rosie the Riveter?\u2019 A lot of women worked for the war cause too. They worked, of course my mom didn\u2019t.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>Q: So your mom was more focused on taking care of you and your sister?<\/p>\n<p>A: \u201cYes.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>Q: Did she have a previous job that she had to give up to help your family or the war?<\/p>\n<p>A: \u201cNo. During that time, women didn\u2019t work. It was just later in years that women started to go to work.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>Q: When men went to war a lot of women would take their jobs in factories. Do you know anything about that?<\/p>\n<p>A: \u201cMy mom didn\u2019t know anybody, but I was talking to my sister, she knew somebody that did riveting. She was like a \u2018Rosie the Riveter.\u2019 She worked in a factory. I guess it was for planes. The metal where they would rivet something together. I don\u2019t know what they did.\u201d<\/p>\n<p>Q: Do you know if she had to leave a job to do that?<\/p>\n<p>A: \u201cMost likely not. Women did work because I remember my mom before she got married was a telephone operator. So I\u2019m sure some women worked. Other women with children obviously stayed home and cooked for their man. I think that everyone at that time would work together for gold to help the war effort basically. Everybody saved something, everybody made something, worked for a cause. They worked for the war effort. And as I mentioned, at that time everything was saved. They used everything. Nothing was wasted. Nothing. Like paper. They even saved stamps from letters and would send them to the soldiers so they could collect them and say \u2018Ooo look I have a stamp from Canada\u2019 and that\u2019s where all collecting and saving stamps came from.\u201d<\/p>\n<p><strong>Further Research<\/strong><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li>Claudia Goldin and Claudia Olivetti, \u201cShocking Labor Supply: A Reassessment of the Role of World War II on Women\u2019s Labor Supply,\u201d <i>American Economic Review<\/i>, vol. 103, no. 3, May 2013, pp. 257\u201362. <i>EBSCOhost<\/i>, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1257\/aer.103.3.257.<\/li>\n<li>Natsuki Aruga, \u201c\u2018An\u2019\u2019 Finish School&#8221;,\u2019\u201d <i>Labor History<\/i>, vol. 29, no. 4, Fall 1988, p. 498. <i>EBSCOhost<\/i>, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/00236568800890331.<\/li>\n<li>Char Miller, \u201cIn the Sweat of Our Brow: Citizenship in American Domestic Practice During WWII\u2014Victory Gardens,\u201d <i>Journal of American Culture<\/i>, vol. 26, no. 3, Sept. 2003, pp. 395-409. <i>EBSCOhost<\/i>, https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/1542-734X.00100.<\/li>\n<li>Stephen W. Sears, \u201cSorry No Gas,\u201d <i>American Heritage<\/i>, vol. 30, no. 6, Oct. 1979, pp. 4-17. <i>EBSCOhost<\/i>, https:\/\/search.ebscohost.com\/login.aspx direct=true&amp;db=31h&amp;AN=20863705&amp;site=ehost-live&amp;scope=site.<\/li>\n<\/ul>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>By Abby Marthins In the heart of World War II, Jackie Loftus was only a child. She lived in Philadelphia with her mother, father, and older sister. When the war ended in 1945, she was just three years old. Although Loftus does not recall the war itself, she grew up hearing about her parents\u2019 experiences. 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