{"id":1935,"date":"2014-12-04T18:17:54","date_gmt":"2014-12-04T18:17:54","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/?page_id=1935"},"modified":"2022-02-05T18:17:59","modified_gmt":"2022-02-05T18:17:59","slug":"profiles-in-diplomacy","status":"publish","type":"page","link":"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/assignments\/profiles-in-diplomacy\/","title":{"rendered":"Profiles in Diplomacy"},"content":{"rendered":"<p>Students in this course are required to create a final project that examines a significant American diplomat.\u00a0 Here are brief excerpts on about fifty leading US diplomatic figures\u00a0 culled from George Herring&#8217;s magisterial study, <em>From Colony to Superpower\u00a0<\/em>(2008). \u00a0Please note, however, that the profiles below exclude anyone who served as president, while otherwise embracing a very broad definition of diplomacy. \u00a0Below you will find not only State Department officials and presidential advisors, but also businessmen, journalists, military officers, missionaries, politicians and even social activists &#8211;any American citizen who exerted significant influence, for good or bad, on U.S. foreign policy between 1776 and 2001. All of them represent good potential project topics for this course.<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Dean Acheson (1893-1971)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2182\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Acheson-Dean-300x200.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"200\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Acheson-Dean-300x200.jpg 300w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Acheson-Dean-450x300.jpg 450w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Acheson-Dean.jpg 600w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/>&#8220;Of all the Wise Men, none was more controversial and influential than Dean Gooderham Acheson. \u00a0The son of British and Canadian parents, Acheson was educated at Groton, Yale, and Harvard Law School. \u00a0After clerking with legendary Supreme Court Justice Louis Brandeis, he joined one of Washington&#8217;s most prestigious law firms. \u00a0He entered the State Department in 1941, working mainly on economic issues. \u00a0A large man, aristocratic in bearing and haughty in demeanor, he cute quite a figure with his heavy eyebrows, carefully waxed guardsman&#8217;s mustache (which one writer swore had a personality of its own), elegant suits, and Homburg hat. \u00a0He was brilliant of mind and suffered fools poorly. \u00a0A clever wordsmith, he did not hesitate to turn his acerbic wit on adversaries, which sometimes got him into trouble with Congress. \u00a0He was certain that his nation had the power and the proper values to grasp the reigns of world leadership.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/cold-war-diplomacy\/\">(Herring, chap. 14, p. 613)<\/a><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/deanachesondickinsoncollege.weebly.com\/his-life.html\">Student Hall of Fame entry by Joshua Jeong<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Alvey Adee (1842-1924)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2231\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Adee-Alvey-206x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"206\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Adee-Alvey-206x300.jpg 206w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Adee-Alvey.jpg 220w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 206px) 100vw, 206px\" \/>&#8220;The instruments of Gilded Age foreign policy reflected more the nation&#8217;s insular past than its global future. \u00a0The State Department escaped the worst abuses of the era of spoilsmen, but its staff of eighty-one people remained small for an incipient world power. \u00a0Work hours were a leisurely 9:00 A.M. to 4:00 P.M.; the pace was very slow. \u00a0State&#8217;s methods of operation dated to John Quincy Adams. \u00a0Much of the work was done by a single person, the legendary Alvey Adee, a bureaucrat par excellence who served forty years as second assistant secretary of state. \u00a0The State Department&#8217;s institutional memory and a master of diplomatic practice, Adee drafted most of its instructions and dispatches. \u00a0&#8216;Why there isn&#8217;t a kitten born in a palace anywhere on earth that I don&#8217;t have to write a letter of congratulation to the peripatetic tomcat that might have been its sire,&#8217; Theodore Roosevelt would later joke, &#8216;and old Adee does that for me!'&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/global-diplomacy\/\">(Herring, chap. 7, p. 279)<\/a><\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Madeleine Albright (1937-<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2256\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Albright-Madeleine-218x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"218\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Albright-Madeleine-218x300.jpg 218w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Albright-Madeleine.jpg 440w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 218px) 100vw, 218px\" \/>&#8220;More important in terms of precedent &#8211;and policy&#8211; was the replacement of [Secretary of State Warren] Christopher with UN ambassador Madeleine Albright, the first female secretary of state. \u00a0The daughter of a Czech diplomat who escaped both the Nazi invasion and the Communist takeover, Albright claimed to know the meaning of Munich firsthand. \u00a0The United States, in her view, must take responsibility for upholding world order. \u00a0She was consistently the most hawkish of Clinton&#8217;s advisers. \u00a0&#8216;What&#8217;s the point of having this superb military you&#8217;re always talking about,&#8217; she once berated [General Colin] Powell, &#8216;if we can&#8217;t use it?&#8217; \u00a0Described as the &#8216;ultimate independent woman,&#8217; she had raised three daughters before launching a career. \u00a0She bristled when reporters wrote about her appearance. \u00a0Effective on television and in public, she won points at the White House during the 1996 campaign by telling an appreciative Cuban-American audience in Miami&#8217;s Orange Bowl that the shooting down of civilian aircraft by Fidel Castro&#8217;s pilots was &#8216;not cojones but cowardice.&#8217; By sheer force of personality, she became a key player, especially with regard to the Balkans.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/interventionist-diplomacy\/\">(Herring, chap. 20, p. 932)<\/a><\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/09\/Madeleine-Albright-Profile.pdf\">Student Hall of Fame entry by Moyra Schauffler<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr \/>\n<h3><a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Astor-John-Jacob.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright wp-image-2183\" src=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Astor-John-Jacob-248x300.jpg\" alt=\"Astor\" width=\"200\" height=\"242\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Astor-John-Jacob-248x300.jpg 248w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Astor-John-Jacob-768x930.jpg 768w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Astor-John-Jacob-845x1024.jpg 845w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 200px) 100vw, 200px\" \/><\/a>John Jacob Astor (1763-1848)<\/h3>\n<p>&#8220;Encouraged by Jefferson&#8217;s offer of &#8216;every reasonable [government] patronage,&#8217; the New York merchant John Jacob Astor immediately set out to capture the fur trade by constructing a series of posts from the Missouri River to the Columbia. \u00a0In 1811, he established a fort at the mouth of the Columbia, laying the first substantial American claim to the Oregon territory. \u00a0During the War of 1812, Astor loaned a near bankrupt United States $2.5 million in return for promises to defend Astoria it could not keep.&#8221; <a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/jeffersonian-diplomacy\/\">(Herring, chap. 3, p. 114)<\/a><\/p>\n<h3><\/h3>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>James Baker (1930 &#8211; )<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-full wp-image-2184\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Baker-James.jpeg\" alt=\"\" width=\"220\" height=\"290\" \/>&#8220;After the Gulf War, the [George H.W. Bush] administration acted decisively only in the Middle East. \u00a0From the outset, Bush and Secretary of State James Baker had made clear their determination to break the long-standing deadlock in Arab-Israeli negotiations. \u00a0Israel must accept the principle of land for peace as specified in US Resolution 242. \u00a0It must &#8216;lay aside, once and for all, the unrealistic vision of a greater Israel,&#8217; Baker boldly informed an American Israel Public Affairs Committee (AIPAC) gathering in May 1989. \u00a0The end of the Cold War, the demise of the Soviet Union , and the defeat of Iraq seemed to strengthen the administration&#8217;s hand. \u00a0The Palestinians would no longer have an arms supplier. \u00a0By easing the threat from Iraq, the United States presumably gained greater leverage with Israel. \u00a0Working with moderate Palestinians in the West Bank rather than Arafat&#8217;s PLO, the administration secured agreement of the major Arab states for a peace conference. \u00a0Baker jawboned hard-line Israeli premier Yitzhak Shamir into attending.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/interventionist-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 20, pp. 922-23<\/a>)<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>James G. Blaine (1830-1893)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-full wp-image-2188\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Blaine-James-G.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"220\" height=\"264\" \/>&#8220;The pace of U.S. overseas activity quickened from 1889 to 1893 under the aggressive leadership of President Benjamin Harrison and Secretary of State Blaine. \u00a0Defeated by Cleveland for the presidency in 1884, Blaine declined to run four years later. \u00a0The Republicans nominated instead the Indiana lawyer, U.S. senator, and grandson of President William Henry Harrison. \u00a0As a Senate mentor, Blaine had helped convert the Indianian to expansionism. \u00a0The cold, aloof president and his dynamic, charismatic adviser never formed a close working relationship; their collaboration was often beset with rivalry and tension. \u00a0But the two pursued an activist, sometimes belligerent foreign policy that jump-started a decade of expansionism, energetically reasserting U.S. leadership on the hemisphere, pushing reciprocity with renewed vigor, escalating a minor crisis with Chile to the point of war, aggressively pursuing naval bases in the Caribbean and Pacific, and even giving the green light to a coup d&#8217;etat in Hawaii. \u00a0Small of stature with a high-pitched voice, &#8216;Little Ben&#8217; was especially bellicose and on several occasions had to be restrained by the man known as &#8216;Jingo Jim.'&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/global-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 7, pp. 292-3<\/a>)<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/hd.housedivided.dickinson.edu\/node\/5112\">House Divided profile<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Zbigniew Brzezinski (1928 &#8211; 2017)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2185\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Brzezinski-Zbigniew-200x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"200\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Brzezinski-Zbigniew-200x300.jpg 200w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Brzezinski-Zbigniew.jpg 470w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 200px) 100vw, 200px\" \/>&#8220;A Columbia University professor and prolific writer on international relations, Zbig, as he was known, brought to the position a resume much like Kissinger&#8217;s, although he lacked his predecessor&#8217;s nimble mind, trademark wit, and ability to charm the media. \u00a0Born in Poland, the son of a diplomat, he boasted, so the joke went, of being &#8216;the first Pole in 300 years in a position to really stick it to the Russians.&#8217; \u00a0His butch haircut in an age of floppy hairstyles and sharp features gave physical evidence of the aggressive posture toward the Kremlin he would relentlessly push. \u00a0Prickly and arrogant, he scorned [Cyrus] Vance&#8217;s &#8216;gentlemanly approach to the world.&#8217; \u00a0He advocated &#8216;architecture&#8217; in foreign policy, by which he meant clarity and certitude , as opposed to Kissinger&#8217;s &#8216;acrobatics.'&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/human-rights-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 18, p. 832<\/a>)<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Pearl Buck (1892-1973)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2233\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Buck-Pearl-225x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"225\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Buck-Pearl-225x300.jpg 225w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Buck-Pearl.jpg 440w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 225px) 100vw, 225px\" \/>&#8220;Reactions in the United States to the Sino-Japanese War varied. \u00a0Many Americans still saw Japan as a bulwark against Soviet Russia and even against Chinese revolutionary nationalism. \u00a0Some Americans valued a flourishing trade with Japan. \u00a0On the other hand, many increasingly took sides. \u00a0Missionaries who remained to help the Chinese reported the horrors of Japanese aggression; accounts of the rape of Nanking caused particular outrage. \u00a0Warning that the United States must not be intimidated by &#8216;Al Capone nations,&#8217; missionaries pushed for a &#8216;Christian boycott&#8217; of Japanese goods and stopping the sale of war materials to Japan. \u00a0Novelist Pearl Buck and Time-Life mogul Henry Luce, both children of missionary parents, complemented their efforts. \u00a0Millions of Americans read Peal Buck&#8217;s novel\u00a0<em>The Good Earth<\/em>, first published in 1931, and identified with the Chinese peasants whose story it told. \u00a0The movie version appeared in 1937. \u00a0Luce&#8217;s increasingly popular high-circulation magazines and March of Time newsreels also presented highly idealized pictures of China and Chiang Kai-shek, a recent convert to Christianity. \u00a0Over time, such images swayed U.S. opinion against Japan and toward China. \u00a0Whatever their sympathies, Americans in late 1937 staunchly opposed going to war.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/new-deal-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 12, p. 511<\/a>)<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Henry Clay (1777-1852)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2189\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Clay-Henry-259x300.png\" alt=\"\" width=\"259\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Clay-Henry-259x300.png 259w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Clay-Henry.png 311w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 259px) 100vw, 259px\" \/>&#8220;As secretary of state, [John Quincy] Adams had rebuffed Clay&#8217;s proposals to support the Greek and Latin American revolutions &#8211;the United States should be the &#8216;well-wisher to the freedom and independence of all &#8230; the champion and vindicator only of her own,&#8217; he proclaimed in an oft-quoted <a href=\"http:\/\/millercenter.org\/president\/speeches\/speech-3484\">July 4, 1821 oration<\/a> responding to Clay. \u00a0But as president he moved in that direction&#8230;. Closer to home, Adams and Clay sought to encourage republicanism in Latin America. \u00a0For years, Clay had ardently championed Latin American independence. \u00a0As secretary of state, he aspired to commit hemispheric nations to a loose association based on U.S. political and commercial principles. \u00a0Although skeptical, Adams too came to envision the United States providing leadership to the hemisphere in those &#8216;very fundamental maxims which we from our cradle at first proclaimed and partially succeeded to introduce into the code of national law.&#8217; \u00a0The two men feared that the Latin American republics might fall back under European sway in ways that threatened U.S. interests. \u00a0The best solution seemed to be to reshape them according to North American republican principles and institutions.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/jacksonian-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 4, p. 160<\/a>)<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/hd.housedivided.dickinson.edu\/node\/12273\">House Divided profile<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Richard Harding Davis (1864-1916)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2218\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Davis-Richard-H-200x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"200\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Davis-Richard-H-200x300.jpg 200w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Davis-Richard-H.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 200px) 100vw, 200px\" \/>&#8220;The &#8216;yellow press&#8217; (so named for the &#8216;Yellow Kid,&#8217; a popular cartoon character that appeared in its newly colored pages) helped make Cuba a cause celebre in the United States. \u00a0The mass-circulation newspaper came into its own in the 1890s. \u00a0The New York dailies of William Randolph Hearst and Joseph Pulitzer engaged in a fierce, head-to-head competition with few restraints and fewer scruples about the truth. \u00a0They eagerly disseminated stories furnished by the junta. \u00a0Talented artists such as Frederic Remington and writers such as Richard Harding Davis portrayed the revolution as a simple morality play featuring the oppression of freedom-loving Cubans by evil Spaniards. \u00a0The yellow press undoubtedly contributed to a war spirit, but Americans in areas where it did not circulate also strongly sympathized with Cuba.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/imperial-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 8, p. 311<\/a>)<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Charles Dawes (1865-1951)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-full wp-image-2191\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Dawes-Charles.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"220\" height=\"294\" \/>&#8220;The administration named Chicago banker Charles G. Dawes and Owen D. Young, a General Electric executive with close ties to the J.P. Morgan banking firm, to head its group of experts, closely monitored their work, and stepped in on occasion to mediate disputes. \u00a0It was no easy task. \u00a0A settlement had to be hard enough on Germany to satisfy Allied and particularly French concerns while soft enough to be acceptable to Berlin. \u00a0The fast-talking and indefatigable Dawes &#8211;an &#8216;astounding human dynamo,&#8217; once colleague called him&#8211; also had close connections to France from his wartime service in Paris and helped bring the French along. \u00a0Young devised a flexible and ingenious plan, ironically one that would bear Dawes&#8217;s name, that became a means not only to solve the intractable reparations problem but also to promote German recovery&#8230;.Hoover exulted in the &#8216;disinterested statesmanship&#8217; carried out by private American citizens and labeled the Dawes Plan a &#8216;peace mission without parallel in international history.'&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/commercial-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 11, p. 459<\/a>)<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h3><strong>Silas Deane (1738-1789)<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Silas_Deane_William_Johnston.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2041\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Silas_Deane_William_Johnston-253x300.jpg\" alt=\"Silas_Deane_(William_Johnston)\" width=\"253\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Silas_Deane_William_Johnston-253x300.jpg 253w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Silas_Deane_William_Johnston.jpg 400w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 253px) 100vw, 253px\" \/><\/a>&#8220;The committee sounded out Bonvouloir on French willingness to sell war supplies. \u00a0Encouraged by the response, it sent Connecticut merchant Silas Deane to France to arrange for the purchase of arms and other equipment&#8230;.From the time he landed in Paris, the energetic but often indiscreet Deane compromised his own mission. \u00a0He cut deals that benefited the rebel cause &#8211;and from which he profited handsomely, provoking later charges of malfeasance and a nasty spat in Congress. \u00a0He was surrounded by spies, and his employment of the notorious British agent Edward Bancroft produced an intelligence windfall for London. \u00a0He recruited French officers to serve in the Continental Army and even plotted to replace Washington as commander. \u00a0He endorsed sabotage operations against British ports, provoking angry protests to France. \u00a0Even more dangerously, he and irascible colleague Arthur Lee made the French increasingly uneasy about supporting the Americans&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/revolutionary-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 1, pp. 15, 19<\/a>).<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>William Donovan (1883-1959)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2236\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Donovan-William-200x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"200\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Donovan-William-200x300.jpg 200w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Donovan-William.jpg 320w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 200px) 100vw, 200px\" \/>&#8220;The Coordinator of Information, precursor to the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) &#8211;and subsequently the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA)&#8211; was America&#8217;s first independent intelligence agency&#8230;.Headed by a World War I Medal of Honor winner, the flamboyant Col. William &#8216;Wild Bill&#8217; Donovan, the OSS at its peak employed thirteen thousand people, as many as nine thousand overseas. \u00a0Bearing a distinct Ivy League hue, it brought to Washington scholars such as historians Arthur M. Schlesinger Jr. and Sherman Kent, and even the Marxist philosopher Herbert Marcuse, to analyze the vast amounts of information collected on enemy capabilities and operations. \u00a0Clandestine operatives such as the legendary Virginia Hall slipped into North Africa and Europe to prepare the way for Allied military operations and carried out black propaganda operations and &#8216;dirty tricks&#8217; in Axis-occupied areas and enemy territory. \u00a0OSS agents in various guises worked with partisan and guerrilla groups in the Balkans and East Asia. \u00a0In Bern, a Secret Intelligence unit headed by Allen Dulles established contact with opponents of Hitler and gathered information about the Nazi regime.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/alliance-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 13, pp. 542-3<\/a>)<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/wildbilldonovan.weebly.com\/\">Student Hall of Fame entry by Nadia Shahab Diaz<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>John Foster Dulles (1888-1959)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2192\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Dulles-John-F-231x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"231\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Dulles-John-F-231x300.jpg 231w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Dulles-John-F-768x998.jpg 768w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Dulles-John-F-788x1024.jpg 788w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Dulles-John-F.jpg 985w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 231px) 100vw, 231px\" \/>&#8220;John Foster Dulles became the nation&#8217;s chief diplomat almost as a matter of inheritance. \u00a0The grandson and namesake of late nineteenth-century secretary of state John W. Foster and nephew of Wilson&#8217;s chief diplomat, Robert Lansing, he carried out his first diplomatic assignment at the age of thirty when he drafted the notorious reparations settlement at the Paris peace conference. \u00a0As a partner in the powerful New York law firm of Sullivan and Cromwell, he joined the world of corporate wealth and international finance. \u00a0Like Woodrow Wilson the son of a Presbyterian minister, Dulles applied his intense religiosity to analyzing the tumultuous international politics of the 1930s and &#8217;40s. \u00a0A great bear of a man, stern and unsmiling, he could appear brusque, even rude &#8211;&#8216;the only bull who carried his own China closet with him,&#8217; Winston Churchill once snarled (and indeed Dulles was a collector of rare china). \u00a0An indefatigable worker, as secretary of state he set a record by traveling more than a half million miles. \u00a0Once viewed as the dominant force in policymaking in the Eisenhower years, he and the president in fact formed an extraordinarily close partnership based on mutual respect in which the latter was plainly preeminent. \u00a0Dulles&#8217;s strident anti-Communist rhetoric and penchant for &#8216;brinkmanship&#8217; stamped him as an ideologue and crusader. \u00a0He often served as a lightning rod for his boss. \u00a0He was also a cool pragmatist with a sophisticated view of the world and ample tactical skills.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/brinksmanship-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 15, p. 657<\/a>)<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Hamilton Fish (1808-1893)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2214\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Fish-Hamilton-250x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"250\" height=\"300\" \/>&#8220;Like [William] Seward, Grant&#8217;s secretary of state, Hamilton Fish, was a New Yorker. \u00a0In contrast to his flamboyant predecessor, the wealthy and socially prominent Fish was dignified and stodgy. \u00a0Where Seward had coveted his cabinet post as a stepping-stone to the presidency, Fish dismissed it as one &#8216;for which I have little taste and less fitness.&#8217; \u00a0Taste and fitness notwithstanding, he ranks among the nation&#8217;s better secretaries of state, in large part because of his settlement of the\u00a0<em>Alabama\u00a0<\/em>claims dispute with Britain. \u00a0Unimaginative and somewhat rigid in his thinking, he was a person of good judgment and distinguished himself in an administration not noted for integrity or accomplishments of its top officials. \u00a0He served longer than any other individual who held the post in the nineteenth century.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/lincolnian-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 6, p. 258<\/a>)<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/hd.housedivided.dickinson.edu\/node\/8949\">House Divided profile<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-full wp-image-2181\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Franklin-Benjamin.jpeg\" alt=\"\" width=\"203\" height=\"248\" \/>&#8220;Franklin&#8217;s mission to Paris is one of the most extraordinary episodes in the history of American diplomacy, important, if not indeed decisive, to the outcome of the Revolution. \u00a0The eminent scientist, journalist, politician, and homespun philosopher was already an international celebrity when he landed in France. \u00a0Establishing himself in a comfortable house with a well-stocked wine cellar in a suburb Paris, he made himself the toast of the city. A steady flow of visitors requested audiences and favors such as commissions in the American army. \u00a0Through clever packaging, he presented himself to French society as the very embodiment of America&#8217;s revolution, a model of republican simplicity and virtue. (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/revolutionary-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap 1, p. 19<\/a>)<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Alexander Hamilton (1755-1804)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2195\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Hamilton-Alexander-300x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Hamilton-Alexander-300x300.jpg 300w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Hamilton-Alexander-150x150.jpg 150w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Hamilton-Alexander-768x768.jpg 768w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Hamilton-Alexander-1024x1024.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Hamilton-Alexander.jpg 1200w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/>&#8220;Both [Thomas Jefferson and Hamilton] shared the long-range goal of a strong nation, independent of the great powers of Europe, but they approached it from quite different perspectives, advocating coherent systems of political economy in which foreign and domestic policies were inextricably linked with sharply conflicting visions of what America should be. \u00a0Hamilton was the more patient. \u00a0He preferred to build national power and <em>then\u00a0<\/em>&#8216;dictate the terms of the connection between the old world and the new.&#8217; Modeling his system on that of England, he sought to establish a strong government and stable economy that would attract investment capital and promote manufactures. \u00a0Though expansion of the home market he hoped in time to get around Britain&#8217;s commercial restrictions and even challenge its supremacy, but for the moment he would acquiesce. \u00a0His economic program hinged on revenues from trade with England, and he opposed anything that threatened it. \u00a0Horrified at the excesses of the French Revolution, he condemned Jefferson&#8217;s &#8216;womanish attachment&#8217; to France and increasingly saw England as a bastion of stable governing principles. \u00a0More accurate than Jefferson and Madison in his assessment of American weakness and therefore more willing to make concessions to Britain, he pursued peace with a zeal that compromised American pride and honor and engaged in machinations that could have undermined American interests. \u00a0His lust for power could be both reckless and destructive.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/partisan-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 2, p. 65<\/a>)<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Townsend Harris (1804-1878)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2205\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Harris-Townsend-237x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"237\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Harris-Townsend-237x300.jpg 237w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Harris-Townsend.jpg 480w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 237px) 100vw, 237px\" \/>&#8220;It remained for Townsend Harris, a diplomat of undistinguished credentials with no force at his disposal, to establish the foundation for Japan&#8217;s relations with the West for the remainder of the century. \u00a0Arriving in 1856 as the first U.S. consul, he was shunted to the small and inaccessible village of Shimoda by a government that would have preferred he stay at home. \u00a0He was forced to share a run-down temple with rats, bats, and enormous spiders. \u00a0Sometimes going months without word from Washington, Harris rightly considered himself the &#8216;most isolated American official in the world.&#8217; \u00a0Frustrated by Japanese obstructionism, he also came to admire the Japanese people and appreciate their culture, perhaps through the influence of a mistress, assigned him by the government, who may have been the inspiration for Giacomo Puccini&#8217;s opera\u00a0<em>Madame Butterfly. \u00a0<\/em>Confident that with patience the West could elevate Japan to &#8216;our standards of civilization,&#8217; Harris stubbornly persisted, repeatedly warning his hosts that it would be better to deal peaceably with the United States than risk China&#8217;s fate at the hands of the Europeans. \u00a0Eventually, he prevailed.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/expansionist-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 5, p. 213<\/a>)<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>John Hay (1838-1905)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2219\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Hay-John-250x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"250\" height=\"300\" \/>&#8220;Once the Spanish crisis had ended, the McKinley administration also took a stand in defense of U.S. trade in China. \u00a0The task fell to newly appointed Secretary of State John Hay. \u00a0At one time Lincoln&#8217;s private secretary, the dapper, witty, and multitalented Hay had worked in business and journalism and was also an accomplished poet, novelist, and biographer. \u00a0He had served in diplomatic posts in Vienna, Paris, Madrid, and London before returning to Washington. \u00a0Independently wealthy, urbane, and extraordinarily well connected, the Indianan was a shrewd politician. \u00a0Like many Republicans, he had once opposed expansion, but he gave way in the 1890s to what he called a &#8216;cosmic tendency.&#8217; \u00a0Pressured by China hands like W.W. Rockhill, Hay concluded that a statement of the U.S. position on freedom of trade in China would appease American businessmen and possibly earn some goodwill among the Chinese that might benefit the United States commercially. \u00a0It would convince expansionists the United States was prepared to live up to its responsibilities as an Asian power.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/imperial-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 8, p. 331<\/a>)<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/hd.housedivided.dickinson.edu\/node\/5859\">House Divided profile<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Edward House (1858-1938)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2225\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/House-Edward-204x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"204\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/House-Edward-204x300.jpg 204w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/House-Edward.jpg 440w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 204px) 100vw, 204px\" \/>&#8220;[Woodrow] Wilson&#8217;s views were influenced by Col. Edward M. House (the title was honorific), a wealthy Texas politico who without official position remained his alter ego and closest adviser until the last years of his presidency. \u00a0Small of stature, quiet and self-effacing, House was a shrewd judge of people and a skilled behind-the-scenes operator. \u00a0His aspirations were revealed in his anonymously published novel,\u00a0<em>Philip Dru: Administrator,\u00a0<\/em>the tale of a Kentuckian and West Point graduate who after corralling the special interests at home launched a crusade with Britain against Germany and Japan for disarmament and the removal of trade barriers.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/wilsonian-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 10, p. 380<\/a>)<\/p>\n<h3><\/h3>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Charles Evans Hughes (1862-1948)<\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2022\/01\/Screen-Shot-2022-01-23-at-1.26.35-PM.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-4301\" src=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2022\/01\/Screen-Shot-2022-01-23-at-1.26.35-PM-258x300.png\" alt=\"Hughes\" width=\"258\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2022\/01\/Screen-Shot-2022-01-23-at-1.26.35-PM-258x300.png 258w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2022\/01\/Screen-Shot-2022-01-23-at-1.26.35-PM-880x1024.png 880w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2022\/01\/Screen-Shot-2022-01-23-at-1.26.35-PM-768x893.png 768w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2022\/01\/Screen-Shot-2022-01-23-at-1.26.35-PM.png 1042w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 258px) 100vw, 258px\" \/><\/a>&#8220;During the 1920s, the secretaries of state resumed the preeminent role in policymaking they had played before McKinley and Roosevelt.\u00a0 The New York lawyer and unsuccessful presidential candidate Charles Evans Hughes was one of the ablest ever to hold the post.\u00a0 An indefatigable worker, utterly devoted to the job, he filled the sizeable void left by Harding and Coolidge and was perhaps the last secretary to personally manage U.S. foreign policy.\u00a0 Hughes ably presided over a department with a budget of $2 million and a staff of six hundred people.\u00a0 He won the loyalty of his aides with his dedication and warm, outgoing personality.\u00a0 Blessed with a brilliant mind, he was also politically astute.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/commercial-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 11, p. 442<\/a>)<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/washingtonnavalconference.weebly.com\/\">Hall of Fame entry by Jacob Doherty Munro<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>John Jay (1745-1829)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2197\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Jay-John-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Jay-John-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Jay-John-768x576.jpg 768w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Jay-John-1024x768.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Jay-John-400x300.jpg 400w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Jay-John.jpg 1920w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/>&#8220;One area of progress [under the Articles of Confederation] was in the administration of foreign affairs. \u00a0[Robert] Livingston had repeatedly complained of inadequate authority and congressional interference. \u00a0He resigned before the peace treaty was ratified. \u00a0Congress responded by strengthening the position of the secretary of foreign affairs. \u00a0John Jay assumed the office in December 1784 and held it until a new government took power in 1789, providing needed continuity. \u00a0An able administrator, he insisted that his office have full responsibility for the nation&#8217;s diplomacy. \u00a0Remarkably, he also conditioned his acceptance on Congress settling in New York. \u00a0Assisted by four clerks and several part-time translators, he worked out of two rooms in a tavern near Congress&#8217;s meeting place. \u00a0He did not achieve his major foreign policy goals, but he managed his department efficiently. Interestingly, a secret act of Congress authorized him to open and examine any letters going through the post office that might contain information endangering the &#8216;safety or interest of the United States.&#8217; \u00a0He appears not to have used this authority.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/revolutionary-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 1, pp. 35-6<\/a>)<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>George Kennan (1904-2005)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-full wp-image-2241\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Kennan-George.jpeg\" alt=\"\" width=\"220\" height=\"282\" \/>&#8220;The namesake of a distant relative who in the late nineteenth century had documented for enthralled US. audiences the horrors of the Siberian exile system, the younger [George] Kennan was one of a handful of men trained after World War I as experts on Bolshevik Russia. \u00a0Conservative in his tastes and politics and scholarly in demeanor, he developed a deep admiration for traditional Russian literature and culture and, from service in the Moscow embassy after 1933, an even deeper antipathy for the Soviet state. Frustrated during the war when the Roosevelt administration ignored his cautionary recommendations, he eagerly responded when Truman&#8217;s State Department requested his views. \u00a0&#8216;They had asked for it,&#8217; he later wrote. \u00a0&#8216;Now, by God, they would get it.&#8217; \u00a0In highly alarmist tones, he delivered over the wires [in early 1946] a lecture on Soviet behavior that decisively influenced the origins and nature of the Cold War.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/containment-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 14, p. 604<\/a>)<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Henry Kissinger (1923 &#8211;<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2253\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Kissinger-Henry-232x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"232\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Kissinger-Henry-232x300.jpg 232w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Kissinger-Henry.jpg 440w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 232px) 100vw, 232px\" \/>&#8220;The &#8216;team&#8217; that would devise new policies for a new era comprised an unlikely duo at best. \u00a0As part of the Jewish diaspora of the 1930s, Henry Alfred Kissinger fled Nazi Germany as a youth and settled in New York City. \u00a0After serving in the army, he earned a B.A. and Ph.D. in political science at Harvard, writing a dissertation on Castlereagh and Metternich, the architects of post-Napoleonic world order. \u00a0As a faculty member at Harvard, he cultivated the international foreign policy elite, and his books on important issues brought him to the attention of establishment figures. \u00a0He advised moderate Republican Nelson Rockefeller on foreign policy. \u00a0As a consultant for the Kennedy and Johnson administrations, he participated in several Vietnam peace initiatives. \u00a0During the 1968 campaign, he shamelessly played various sides agains the middle. \u00a0His owlish professorial appearance and dry, self-effacing wit only partially obscured an enormous ego and a burning ambition to shape policies rather than write about them. \u00a0His thick German accent and slow speech seemed to give authority to his pronouncements.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/detente-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 17, p. 763<\/a>)<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Charles Lindbergh (1902-1974)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2234\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Lindbergh-Charles-221x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"221\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Lindbergh-Charles-221x300.jpg 221w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Lindbergh-Charles-768x1040.jpg 768w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Lindbergh-Charles-756x1024.jpg 756w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Lindbergh-Charles.jpg 1024w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 221px) 100vw, 221px\" \/>&#8220;In July [1940], Yale University students and midwestern businessmen formed the America First Committee. \u00a0As the name suggests, America Firsters ardently opposed intervention &#8211;and aid to Britain, which, they argued, would inevitably lead to intervention. \u00a0They saw the war not as a great ideological conflict but as another round in the endless struggle among Europeans for power and empire. \u00a0The United States, they insisted, had no stake in that conflict. \u00a0Some like aviator hero Charles Lindbergh preached accommodation with Hitler. \u00a0Others minimized the German threat and advocated defense of the Western Hemisphere. \u00a0America First was an unwieldy coalition of strange bedfellows, businessmen, old progressives and leftists, and some strongly anti-Jewish groups. \u00a0Many blamed Roosevelt&#8217;s interventionist policies on a personal lust for power. \u00a0These various groups created local and regional offices, organized rallies, sent out mailings, and propagandized Congress.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/new-deal-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 12, p. 522<\/a>)<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Walter Lippmann (1889-1974)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2243\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Lippmann-Walter-200x300.jpeg\" alt=\"\" width=\"200\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Lippmann-Walter-200x300.jpeg 200w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Lippmann-Walter.jpeg 400w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 200px) 100vw, 200px\" \/>&#8220;Responded to [Henry] Luce&#8217;s 1941 call for an &#8216;American Century,&#8217; Vice President [Henry] Wallace proclaimed the &#8216;century of the common man&#8217; and advocated a &#8216;people&#8217;s revolution&#8217; &#8211;a global New Deal&#8211; to ensure that all peoples had &#8216;the privilege of drinking a quart of milk every day.&#8217; \u00a0Sumner Welles and contract bridge guru Ely Culbertson advocated an international police force; others proposed a world federation. \u00a0Wendell Willkie&#8217;s stirring account of his global tour,\u00a0<em>One World<\/em>, stressed that the shrinkage of distances had brought peoples together and made peace indivisible. \u00a0It enjoyed the highest sales of any book published in the United States to this time. \u00a0Alarmed by the rampant idealism of Wallace and Willkie, Yale University political geographer Nicholas Spykman urged a realpolitik approach to the postwar world. \u00a0Journalist and onetime Wilsonian Walter Lippmann&#8217;s 1943 book,\u00a0<em>U.S. Foreign Policy: Shield of the Republic<\/em>, echoed Spykman in calling for foreign policy based on the balance of power. \u00a0An instant best seller, it was excerpted in the\u00a0<em>Reader&#8217;s Digest\u00a0<\/em> and, most remarkably, appeared in a cartoon version in the\u00a0<em>Ladies&#8217; Home Journal. \u00a0<\/em>Polls taken in 1942-43 indicated broad popular support for U.S. participation in an international organization. \u00a0Congress jumped out ahead of the White House in late 1943 by approving separate resolutions to that effect.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/alliance-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 13, p. 581<\/a>)<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Henry Cabot Lodge (1850-1924)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2227\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Lodge-Henry-Cabot-248x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"248\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Lodge-Henry-Cabot-248x300.jpg 248w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Lodge-Henry-Cabot-768x928.jpg 768w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Lodge-Henry-Cabot-848x1024.jpg 848w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Lodge-Henry-Cabot.jpg 1024w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 248px) 100vw, 248px\" \/>&#8220;For the next eight months, the nation engaged in yet another great debate over its role in the world&#8230;.The struggle contained many interlocking elements. \u00a0Wilson had stretched executive powers before and during the war. \u00a0At one level, it represented a clash between competing branches of government. \u00a0It was also an intensely personal feud between two men who despised each other. \u00a0Senator Henry Cabot Lodge had disliked Wilson from the start. \u00a0By 1915, he called the president, except for James Buchanan, &#8216;the most dangerous man that ever sat in the White House&#8217; and confided in Roosevelt that he &#8216;never expected to hate anyone in politics with the hatred I feel towards Wilson.&#8217; \u00a0Lodge set out to defeat and humiliate his archenemy over the League [of Nations] issue. \u00a0The president was determined not to let his foe thwart his great cause.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/wilsonian-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 10, p. 427<\/a>)<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>George C. Marshall (1880-1959)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2245\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Marshall-George-227x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"227\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Marshall-George-227x300.jpg 227w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Marshall-George.jpg 712w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 227px) 100vw, 227px\" \/>&#8220;The independent and unpredictable [James] Byrnes resigned in late 1946, and Truman named the illustrious George C. Marshall to succeed him. \u00a0The president had enormous regard for the general &#8211;&#8216;What I like about Marshall is he&#8217;s a man,&#8217; he once affirmed, the highest praise one gentleman of that era could lavish upon another. \u00a0A person of vast experience, good judgment, and towering prestige, Marshall could shield the State Department from partisan attack and could be counted upon to work closely with the president, areas where Byrnes had conspicuously failed. \u00a0Indeed, under Marshall&#8217;s firm leadership and orderly administrative style, the State Department enjoyed a rare period of preeminence in the making of U.S. foreign policy.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/containment-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 14, p. 612<\/a>)<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>George Mathews (1739-1812)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2199\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Mathews-George-194x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"194\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Mathews-George-194x300.jpg 194w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Mathews-George.jpg 208w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 194px) 100vw, 194px\" \/>&#8220;The [Madison] administration&#8217;s actions in East Florida in 1812 represent an embarrassing episode in early national history, a failed attempt to take by force territory to which the United States had little claim. \u00a0Fearing the collapse of Spanish rule, Madison in 1810 dispatched Georgia adventurer George Mathews to inform the residents of East Florida that if they were to separate from Spain they would be welcomed into the United States. \u00a0The following year, he secured from Congress authorization to use force to prevent a foreign takeover of East Florida, instructing Mathews in such an eventuality to occupy the province or negotiate with the locals. \u00a0Mathews subsequently sought authority to foment revolution there. \u00a0The administration&#8217;s non-response was interpreted by him &#8211;and has been seen by some historians&#8211; as tantamount to silent complicity in the scheme. \u00a0Others persuasively argue that this was standard operating procedure and did not imply consent. \u00a0Whatever the case, the overzealous Mathews organized a group of local &#8216;Patriots&#8217; who seized Amelia Island off the Georgia coast and laid siege to St. Augustine. \u00a0Complaining that Mathews&#8217;s &#8216;extravagance&#8217; had put the administration in &#8216;the most distressing dilemma,&#8217; Madison disavowed his reckless agent. \u00a0On the verge of war with Britain, however, and more than ever concerned about the threat to East Florida, he authorized the Patriots to hold on to territory they had taken. \u00a0Furious with his abandonment, Mathews started home to expose the administration&#8217;s complicity. \u00a0In a rare bit of good luck during his embattled presidency, Madison was spared further embarrassment when Mathews died en route.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/jeffersonian-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 3, pp. 111-2<\/a>)<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Joseph McCarthy (1908-1957)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2248\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/McCarthy-Joseph-251x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"251\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/McCarthy-Joseph-251x300.jpg 251w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/McCarthy-Joseph.jpg 440w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 251px) 100vw, 251px\" \/>&#8220;With the postwar Red Scare already under way, in February 1950, a heretofore obscure Republican senator from Wisconsin, Joseph R. McCarthy, in a major speech in Wheeling, West Virginia, claimed to have the names of some 206 Communists working in the State Department, accelerating the witch hunt that would bear his name. \u00a0Stunned from their complacency, a people who through much of their history had enjoyed relatively cost-free security reacted with panic. \u00a0A Cold War culture of near hysterical fear, paranoiac suspiciousness, and stifling conformity began to take shape. \u00a0Militant anticommunism increasingly poisoned the political atmosphere at home and made negotiations with the Soviet Union unthinkable.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/cold-war-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 14, p. 637<\/a>)<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Robert McNamara (1916-2009)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2251\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/McNamara-Robert-240x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"240\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/McNamara-Robert-240x300.jpg 240w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/McNamara-Robert.jpg 440w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 240px) 100vw, 240px\" \/>&#8220;The [Vietnam] war&#8217;s mounting costs were more important than the anti-war movement in generating public concern. \u00a0Growing casualties, indications that more troops might be required, and LBJ&#8217;s belated request for a tax increase combined in late 1967 to produce unmistakable signs of war-weariness. \u00a0Polls showed a sharp decline in support for the war and the president&#8217;s handling of it. \u00a0The press increasingly questioned U.S. goals and methods. \u00a0Members of Congress from both parties began to challenge LBJ&#8217;s policies. \u00a0Doubts even arose among his inner circle. \u00a0The secretary of defense had been so closely identified with Vietnam that it had once been called &#8216;McNamara&#8217;s War.&#8221; In 1967, a tormented McNamara unsuccessfully urged the president to stop the bombing of North Vietnam, put a ceiling on U.S. ground troops, scale back war aims, and seek a negotiated settlement. \u00a0By the end of the year, for many observers, the war become the most visible symbol of a malaise that afflicted American society.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/vietnam-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 16, p. 741<\/a>)<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-journal\/2010\/10\/22\/bound-by-numbers-mcnamara%e2%80%99s-attempt-to-influence-the-post-vietnam-war-discourse\/\">Student Hall of Fame entry by Brian Krussell<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Paul Nitze (1907-2004)<\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2022\/01\/Screen-Shot-2022-01-23-at-1.58.07-PM.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-4306\" src=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2022\/01\/Screen-Shot-2022-01-23-at-1.58.07-PM-222x300.png\" alt=\"Nitze\" width=\"222\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2022\/01\/Screen-Shot-2022-01-23-at-1.58.07-PM-222x300.png 222w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2022\/01\/Screen-Shot-2022-01-23-at-1.58.07-PM.png 682w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 222px) 100vw, 222px\" \/><\/a>&#8220;NSC-68 was drafted by [Paul] Nitze, who had replaced Kennan as head of the Policy Planning Staff.\u00a0 A Wall Street investment banker, as intense in personality as his mentor James Forrestal, Nitze exceeded Acheson in his gloomy worldview.\u00a0 His study set forth an urgent statement of the national security ideology.\u00a0 It proclaimed the necessity of defending freedom across the world to save it at home.\u00a0 Written in the starkest black-and-white terms, it took a worst case view of Soviet capabilities and intentions.\u00a0 &#8220;Animated by a new fanatical faith,&#8221; it warned, the USSR was seeking to &#8220;impose its absolute authority on the rest of the world.&#8221; Soviet expansion had reached a point beyond which it must not be permitted to go.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/cold-war-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 14, p. 638<\/a>)<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/paulnitze.weebly.com\/\">Student Hall of Fame entry by Maddie Littlepage<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Matthew Perry \u00a0(1794-1858)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2203\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Perry-Matthew-217x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"217\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Perry-Matthew-217x300.jpg 217w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Perry-Matthew-768x1060.jpg 768w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Perry-Matthew-742x1024.jpg 742w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Perry-Matthew.jpg 1024w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 217px) 100vw, 217px\" \/>&#8220;The United States took the lead in opening Japan. \u00a0Encouraged by Britain&#8217;s success in China and viewing Japan as a vital coaling station en route to the Celestial Kingdom, the last link in Webster&#8217;s &#8216;great chain,&#8217; [President Millard] Fillmore in 1852 named Cmdre. Matthew Perry to head a mission to Japan. \u00a0Regarding the Japanese as a &#8216;weak and semi-barbarous people,&#8217; Perry decided to deal forcibly with them. \u00a0In July 1853, he steamed defiantly into Edo (later Tokyo) Bay with a fleet of four very large, black-hulled ships, sixty-one guns, and a crew of nearly one thousand men. \u00a0He maneuvered his ships closer to the city than any foreigner had previously gone&#8230;. Perry came back in March 1854 with a larger fleet, threatening this time that if Japan did not treat with him it might suffer the fate of Mexico. \u00a0Instructed by the State Department to &#8216;do everything to impress&#8217; the Japanese &#8216;with a just sense of the power and greatness&#8217; of the United States, he brought with him large quantities of champagne and vintage Kentucky bourbon to grease the wheels of diplomacy, a pair of Sam Colt&#8217;s six-shooters, and a history of the Mexican War to validate its military superiority. \u00a0He employed Chinese coolies and African Americans in his entourage in ways that highlighted the power of whites over peoples of color. \u00a0He used uniforms, pageants, and music &#8211;even a blackface minstrel show&#8211; as manifestations of Western cultural supremacy. \u00a0Perry&#8217;s reluctant hosts most likely negotiated in spite of rather than because of his forceful demeanor and cultural symbols.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/expansionist-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 5, pp. 212-3<\/a>)<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/hd.housedivided.dickinson.edu\/node\/1543\">House Divided entry<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr \/>\n<h3><strong>Thomas Paine (1737-1809)<\/strong><\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Thomas_Paine_rev1.jpg\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2039\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Thomas_Paine_rev1-223x300.jpg\" alt=\"Thomas_Paine_rev1\" width=\"223\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Thomas_Paine_rev1-223x300.jpg 223w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Thomas_Paine_rev1-760x1024.jpg 760w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 223px) 100vw, 223px\" \/><\/a>&#8220;Only thirty-seven years old when he arrived in the United States in 1774, Paine had been a corset maker and minor British government functionary. \u00a0His best-selling pamphlet\u00a0<em>Common Sense\u00a0<\/em>made an impassioned appeal for independence. \u00a0It was &#8216;absurd,&#8217; he insisted, for a &#8216;continent to be perpetually governed by an island.&#8217; A declaration of independence would gain for America assistance from England&#8217;s enemies, France and Spain. \u00a0It would secure for an independent America peace and prosperity&#8230;.Paine&#8217;s call for independence makes clear the centrality of foreign policy to the birth of the American republic&#8221; \u00a0(<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/revolutionary-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 1, p. 11<\/a>).<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>William Phillips (1878-1968)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2239\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Phillips-William-230x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"230\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Phillips-William-230x300.jpg 230w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Phillips-William-768x1004.jpg 768w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Phillips-William-784x1024.jpg 784w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Phillips-William.jpg 1024w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 230px) 100vw, 230px\" \/>&#8220;Roosevelt responded [to the imprisonment of Mahatma Gandhi] in 1943 by sending career diplomat William Phillips to India as his personal representative, his furthest and final intrusion into an intractable issue. \u00a0An Anglophile who looked down on &#8216;lesser&#8217; peoples, Phillips typified that group of upper-class professional diplomats who manned the State Department. \u00a0Viewing him as &#8216;the best type of American gentleman,&#8217; some British officials expected him to sympathize with their position. \u00a0Once in India, however, he traveled widely and spoke to Indians as well as Britons. \u00a0He found the British stubbornly uncompromising, the Indians divided on many issues but united in their demand for independence. \u00a0Seeing firsthand the rising power of Indian nationalism, he pressed the British to make concessions. \u00a0They rebuffed his interference and even forbade him to see Gandhi, then engaged in a much publicized hunger strike. \u00a0Phillips eventually left India in frustration, and his generally unsuccessful mission typifies Roosevelt&#8217;s approach to this difficult issue. \u00a0The president refused to challenge Churchill directly and thereby threaten the alliance. \u00a0On the other hand, he used Phillips to keep the colonial issue alive and pressure the British. \u00a0Phillips&#8217;s presence in India and his growing support for the cause helped regain the trust of Indians and permitted the United States to retain a nominal commitment to the ideal of self-determination.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/alliance-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 13, p. 572<\/a>)<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-solnit\/\">Honors thesis by Becca Solnit<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Colin Powell (1937- )<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2255\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Powell-Colin-240x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"240\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Powell-Colin-240x300.jpg 240w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Powell-Colin.jpg 440w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 240px) 100vw, 240px\" \/>&#8220;The United States had stuck &#8216;its hand into a thousand-year-old hornet&#8217;s nest [in Lebanon] with the expectation that our mere presence might pacify the hornets,&#8217; Army Col. Colin Powell, a top military advisor to [Secretary of Defense Caspar] Weinberger, later recalled. \u00a0Powell and his boss immediately set out to prevent such deployments in the future. \u00a0Over the next year, the two of them crafted a long list of conditions under which U.S. forces should be deployed. \u00a0What came to be called the Weinberger or Powell Doctrine was an immediate response to the debacle in Lebanon and also to the secretary of defense&#8217;s nasty, ongoing feud with [Secretary of State George] Shultz over the commitment of military forces abroad. \u00a0Weinberger later conceded that it also reflected the &#8216;terrible mistake&#8217; of sending forces to Vietnam without ensuring popular support and providing them the means to win. \u00a0Made public in late 1984, the &#8216;doctrine&#8217; provided that U.S. troops must be committed only as a last resort and if it was in the national interest. \u00a0Objectives must be clearly defined and attainable. \u00a0Public support must be assured, and the means provided to ensure victory. \u00a0The doctrine provoked a bloody fight within the Reagan adminstration &#8211;Shultz labeled it the &#8216;Vietnam Syndrome in spades.&#8217; \u00a0It was never given official sanction. \u00a0But top military officers staunchly supported it, and as Joint Chiefs chairman in the 1990s Powell would fight vigorously for the application of what had become a doctrine bearing his name.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/high-tech-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap.19, p. 875<\/a>)<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Elihu Root (1845-1937)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2221\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Root-Elihu-263x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"263\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Root-Elihu-263x300.jpg 263w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Root-Elihu.jpg 440w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 263px) 100vw, 263px\" \/>&#8220;Almost as important [as President Theodore Roosevelt], if much less visible, was Elihu Root, who served Roosevelt ably as secretary of war and of state. \u00a0A classic workaholic, Root rose to the top echelons of New York corporate law and the Republican Party by virtue of a prodigious memory, mastery of detail, and the clarity and force of his argument. \u00a0A staunch conservative, he profoundly distrusted democracy. \u00a0He sought to promote order through the extension of law, the application of knowledge, and the use of government. \u00a0He shared Roosevelt&#8217;s internationalism and was especially committed to promoting an open and prosperous world economy. \u00a0He was more cautious in the exercise of power than his sometimes impulsive boss. \u00a0For entirely practical reasons, he was also more sensitive to the feelings of other nations, especially potential trading partners. \u00a0A man of great charm and wit &#8211;when the 325-pound Taft sent him a long report of a grueling horseback ride in the Philippines&#8217; heat, he responded tersely, &#8216;How&#8217;s the horse?&#8217; &#8211;he sometimes smooth over his boss&#8217;s rough edges. \u00a0He was a consummate state-builder who used his understanding of power and his formidable persuasiveness to build a strong national government. \u00a0He was the organization man in the organizational society, &#8216;the spring in the machine,&#8217; as Henry Adams put it. \u00a0He founded the eastern foreign policy establishment, that informal network connecting Wall Street, Washington, the large foundations, and the prestigious social clubs, which directed U.S. foreign policy through much of the twentieth century. (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/progressive-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 9, p. 348<\/a>)<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>William Henry Seward (1801-1872)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2210\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Seward-William-213x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"213\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Seward-William-213x300.jpg 213w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Seward-William-768x1081.jpg 768w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Seward-William-728x1024.jpg 728w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Seward-William.jpg 1024w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 213px) 100vw, 213px\" \/>&#8220;The architect of Union diplomatic strategy and the individual mainly responsible for its implementation was Secretary of State William Henry Seward. \u00a0Seward was in many ways a strange person: &#8216;I am an enigma even to myself,&#8217; he once remarked. \u00a0A man of enormous energy, sloppy in appearance, he was also a genial host, a lover of fine cigars and brandy, a great raconteur, a person of such magnetism, Henry Adams once said, that he could &#8216;charm a cow to statesmanship.&#8217; \u00a0A man of considerable vision and sophistication, he was also earthy and a total political animal. \u00a0He was brash, impulsive, and hot-tempered, given to bluster and threats. \u00a0But he was most dangerous, associates said, &#8216;when he pretends to agree a good deal with you.'&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/lincolnian-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 6, p. 227<\/a>)<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/williamhenrysewardandthetrentaffair.weebly.com\/\">Student Hall of Fame entry by Aidan Huntington<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Sargent Shriver (1915-2011)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2249\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Shriver-Sargent-238x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"238\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Shriver-Sargent-238x300.jpg 238w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Shriver-Sargent.jpg 440w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 238px) 100vw, 238px\" \/>&#8220;The more publicized Peace Corps provided a powerful and enduring example of Kennedy&#8217;s practical idealism. \u00a0During the 1960 campaign, he had taken up the idea of American youth going abroad to help other people. \u00a0He named his dynamic brother-in-law Sargent Shriver, a business executive, to head the new program. \u00a0More than forty-three nations requested volunteers the first four years; 2,816 Americans volunteered in the first year alone. \u00a0The aim, obviously, was to win friends in Third World countries, a goal that served Cold War interests, but Shriver resisted State Department pressures to focus on trouble spots like Vietnam and went to great lengths to keep the CIA from using the Peace Corps to plant agents in other countries. \u00a0The Peace Corps&#8217;s impact on Third World development was negligible. \u00a0Some volunteers lacked skills, others had little to do, and many ended up teaching English. \u00a0But its contributions in the realm of the spirit were enormous. \u00a0It helped other peoples to understand the United States and Americans to understand them. \u00a0It conveyed the hope and promise that represented the United States at its best. \u00a0It confirmed the nation&#8217;s values and traditional sense of mission.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/crisis-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 16, p. 712<\/a>)<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Henry McNeal Turner (1834-1915)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2216\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Turner-Henry-McNeal-300x225.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"300\" height=\"225\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Turner-Henry-McNeal-300x225.jpg 300w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Turner-Henry-McNeal-400x300.jpg 400w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Turner-Henry-McNeal.jpg 650w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 300px) 100vw, 300px\" \/>&#8220;Missionary work provided opportunities abroad for Americans whose roles were constricted at home. \u00a0African American missionaries sought converts in Africa while promoting colonization schemes with distinctly imperial overtones. \u00a0Increasingly frustrated with their place in U.S. society, ministers such as Alexander Crummell and Henry McLeod [sic] Turner advocated missionary work in African\u00a0<em>and\u00a0<\/em>&#8216;back to Africa&#8217; colonization schemes like those Henry Clay and Abraham Lincoln had once endorsed&#8230;.In the 1890s, Turner promoted missions in Liberia and Sierra Leone as bases for his larger colonization project. \u00a0Crummell went to Liberia as a missionary and proposed a U.S. protectorate over the nation founded by freed American slaves. \u00a0These early pan-African schemes got little support from the African American middle class &#8211;the churches were dubious precisely because they smacked too much of earlier colonization plans. \u00a0&#8216;We have no business in Africa,&#8217; a bishop protested. \u00a0An indifferent U.S. government provided no backing.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/global-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 7, pp. 274-5<\/a>)<\/p>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>William Walker (1824-1860)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-full wp-image-2208\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Walker-William.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"220\" height=\"276\" \/>&#8220;The notorious William Walker put [U.S. diplomat Solon] Burland to shame. \u00a0Also a former physician &#8211;and lawyer, journalist and gold rusher&#8211; the hundred-pound &#8216;grey-eyed man of destiny&#8217; plunged headlong into the maelstrom of Nicaraguan politics. \u00a0Attaching himself to the faction out of power, he and a band of adventurers he called &#8216;the Immortals&#8217; landed in Nicaragua in June 1855, imposed peace on the group holding power, and established a puppet government giving Walker control. \u00a0Walker subsequently &#8216;won&#8217; the presidency through sham elections, reinstituted slavery, and established English as a second language. \u00a0An overt racist who dismissed the local elite as &#8216;drivelers,&#8217; he dreamed of creating a Central American union, based on slavery and run by white men, with himself as head and closely tied to the southern states. \u00a0In time, he overextended himself. \u00a0Otherwise unable to cooperate, the Central American nations banded together in what is still proudly called the &#8216;National War&#8217; to throw out the Yankee intruder.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/expansionist-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 5, p. 220<\/a>)<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/hd.housedivided.dickinson.edu\/node\/6793\">House Divided profile<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Henry Wallace (1888-1965)<\/h3>\n<p><a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2022\/01\/Screen-Shot-2022-01-23-at-1.39.43-PM.png\"><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-4305\" src=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2022\/01\/Screen-Shot-2022-01-23-at-1.39.43-PM-259x300.png\" alt=\"Wallace\" width=\"259\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2022\/01\/Screen-Shot-2022-01-23-at-1.39.43-PM-259x300.png 259w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2022\/01\/Screen-Shot-2022-01-23-at-1.39.43-PM.png 720w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 259px) 100vw, 259px\" \/><\/a>&#8220;The firing of dissident Secretary of Commerce Henry Wallace just two weeks before delivery of the Clifford-Elsey report solidified the Cold War consensus.\u00a0 For years Wallace had been the torchbearer for American liberals.\u00a0 After most other New Dealers had left office or jumped aboard the Cold War bandwagon, he kept the faith, privately and publicly pleading for cooperation with the Soviet Union and questioning the get-tough approach&#8230;.Like Kennan, Wallace harked back to Russian history to explain Soviet insecurity, but he drew very different conclusions, warning of their sensitivity to U.S. moves they viewed as provocative.\u00a0 He sharply criticized U.S. atomic policy and the get-tough approach. &#8220;The tougher we get, the tougher the Russians will get,&#8221; he averred.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/containment-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 14, p. 610-11<\/a>)<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"https:\/\/henrywallace.weebly.com\/\">Student Hall of Fame entry by Charlotte Goodman<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Daniel Webster (1782-1852)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2201\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Webster-Daniel-202x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"202\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Webster-Daniel-202x300.jpg 202w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Webster-Daniel.jpg 342w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 202px) 100vw, 202px\" \/>&#8220;The Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842 solved several burning issues and confirmed the limits of Manifest Destiny. \u00a0By this time, both sides sought to ease tensions. \u00a0An avowed Anglophile, Secretary of State Daniel Webster viewed commerce with England as essential to U.S. prosperity. \u00a0The new British government of Sir Robert Peel was friendly towards the United States and sought respite from tension to pursue domestic reform and address more urgent European problems&#8230;. [Lord] Ashburton steeled himself for the rigors of life in the &#8216;colonies&#8217; by bringing with him three secretaries, five servants, and three horses and a carriage. \u00a0He and Webster entertained lavishly. \u00a0Old friends, they agreed to dispense with the usual conventions of diplomacy and work informally. \u00a0Webster even invited representatives of Maine and Massachusetts to join the discussions, causing Ashburton to marvel how &#8216;this Mass of ungovernable and unmanageable anarchy&#8217; functioned as well as it did. \u00a0The novice diplomats used unconventional methods to resolve major differences. \u00a0On the most difficult issue, the Maine-New Brunswick boundary, they worked out a compromise that satisfied hotheads on neither side and then used devious means to sell it.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/expansionist-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 5, pp. 186-7<\/a>)<\/p>\n<ul>\n<li><a href=\"http:\/\/hd.housedivided.dickinson.edu\/node\/12283\">House Divided profile<\/a><\/li>\n<\/ul>\n<hr \/>\n<h3>Andrew Young (1932-)<\/h3>\n<p><img loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"alignright size-medium wp-image-2254\" src=\"http:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Young-Andrew-193x300.jpg\" alt=\"\" width=\"193\" height=\"300\" srcset=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Young-Andrew-193x300.jpg 193w, https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/files\/2014\/12\/Young-Andrew.jpg 440w\" sizes=\"auto, (max-width: 193px) 100vw, 193px\" \/>&#8220;Carter&#8217;s ambassador to the United Nations, Andrew Young, and First Lady Rosalynn Carter deserve special mention. \u00a0A youthful and prominent civil rights leader and follower of the late Martin Luther King Jr., Young was among the first African Americans to hold a top-level diplomatic position, an appointment of great symbolic importance for people of color at home and abroad. \u00a0Like many other African American leaders, he linked the struggle for freedom in the United States with the fight against colonialism abroad, especially in Africa, and he was one of the first U.S. diplomats to disentangle southern African issues from the Cold War. \u00a0Often far out in front of Carter and the diplomatic establishment, outspoken and at times quite undiplomatic in demeanor, Young sometimes got his boss in trouble with his candor. \u00a0His unconventional behavior ultimately forced his resignation. \u00a0While in office, however, he helped to improve U.S. relations with the Third World and to engineer a major shift in policies toward Africa.&#8221; (<a href=\"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/course-syllabus\/human-rights-diplomacy\/\">Herring, chap. 18, p. 833<\/a>)<\/p>\n<p>&nbsp;<\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"<p>Students in this course are required to create a final project that examines a significant American diplomat.\u00a0 Here are brief excerpts on about fifty leading US diplomatic figures\u00a0 culled from George Herring&#8217;s magisterial study, From Colony to Superpower\u00a0(2008). \u00a0Please note, however, that the profiles below exclude anyone who served as president, while otherwise embracing a [&hellip;]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":373,"featured_media":0,"parent":3702,"menu_order":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","template":"","meta":{"footnotes":""},"class_list":["post-1935","page","type-page","status-publish","hentry"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1935","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/page"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/373"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=1935"}],"version-history":[{"count":0,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/1935\/revisions"}],"up":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/pages\/3702"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/blogs.dickinson.edu\/hist-282pinsker\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=1935"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}