Author: Avery Butcher

Travelling during the Middle Ages was not an easy task due to the lack of information people had on foreign areas, the limited options for travelling – either by foot or by animal – and the risk of coming into contact with dangerous persons or events. Even so, people, like ibn Fadlan, still journeyed into the unknown world. Fadlan’s journey took place from 921-922, and he travelled over 2,000 miles from Baghdad to Bulghar, or modern-day Republic of Tatarstan. Although the Middle Ages did not have an abundance of mapping technology, there were some advancements made, like the creation of the Tabula Rogeriana in 1154. The Tabula Rogeriana, created by Muhammad ibn Muhammad al-Idrisi and commissioned by King Roger II of Sicily, was a huge step forward for cartographical progress during this era (Sturtevant). I have produced ibn Fadlan’s trip on both a modern map and the Tabula Rogeriana, which creates a better understanding of what travel was like in the medieval era compared to how travel is in the modern age. Although both maps were created centuries after Fadlan took this journey, considering the medieval map, it goes to show the sheer difficulty of traveling during medieval times due to the lack of information and preparation travelers like Fadlan had access to. 

While mapping this journey on two different maps from different points in time, the disparities between the maps are very apparent. For the modern map, mapping ibn Fadlan’s stops was fairly easy. I only ran into some difficulties because some of the cities do not even exist anymore. Most of the cities Fadlan traveled to now have a different name in the modern world than when he visited, so I needed to research on the cities’ modern equivalents. The name changes can be because of some historical implications, like perhaps someone conquered the city and changed the name, or it can be the result of linguistic and cultural influences changing over the course of history. Other than that, it was pretty simple to transcribe his journey onto the modern map because I just typed in the name of the city, and the technology took care of the rest. The medieval map was certainly not as simple. To start, the Tabula Rogeriana is flipped from the modern perspective, meaning North is down and South is up. This is due to the Arab-Islamic cartography influences al-Idrisi learned,

where the scholars depicted North at the bottom of the map and South at the top because they believed up is good and down is bad (Pastuch), so I needed to reorient my thinking. Then, I needed to place the points I believe to be the locations of the cities Fadlan visited purely based on the modern map. The Tabula Rogeriana has cities depicted by the little black dots, but the labeling is all in Arabic, which I do not speak, so I had to estimate to the best of my ability. Also, the Tabula Rogeriana does not include borders on the map, so I needed to use other landmarks to help with my estimation of each point, such as the mountains and rivers. The inclusion of the different topographical elements denoting mountains and rivers show that although this map is from an entirely different era, they still had the ability to track and illustrate these features, which would be of great help to a medieval traveler. 

Both maps presented challenges when mapping out Fadlan’s journey, but the medieval map of the Tabula Rogeriana is definitely the more difficult one to use. Cartographers had limited information since the only information they had was either their own experience or their colleagues’ experience, so they ran the risk of spreading false information about these locations. The Tabula Rogeriana had the influence of people from all different religious, occupational, and cultural backgrounds, which is what made this map so important for its time (Pastuch). The collaboration of the Arab-Islamic influences al-Idrisi learned from the Balkhi School of Geography (Pastuch) and King Roger II’s Christian influences is why this is one of the earliest examples of multiculturalism, which is demonstrated by the lack of borders included in the map. The area is one united mass and not separated by religious differences or culture. On the modern map the borders separate countries by government control and territorial agreements. Information for the modern map does not come from word of mouth, but by modern technology. This technology gathers every piece of data about every location on Earth. Modern travelers do not face nearly as many of the same concerns as the medieval travelers, and it is all because of technology. There is no guesswork, the information is all at their fingertips. 

Ibn Fadlan’s journey included various stressful points, but his lowest point during his journey was his visit to Jurjaniya due to the intensely cold climate. He and his group needed to stay in Jurjaniya for three months due to the frigid weather and he describes it as, “the cold of hell” (Fadlan 7). Fadlan would have greatly benefitted from modern technology, especially weather applications that would have warned him about the climate of the area he traveled to; furthermore, the modern map could also give him an alternate route so he could avoid places that would cause him such hardship. It took Ibn Fadlan about a year to travel about 2,000 miles, and in the modern age, that trip could take a person five hours by plane. It is miraculous how far technology has come and what it has given people the ability to accomplish. Ibn Fadlan virtually traveled all that distance to meet the king of the Saqaliba in the land of the Turks (Fadlan 25), which in modern day could have been a day trip or a Zoom meeting. Ibn Fadlan was proud to serve the caliph and promote Islamic worship, but I assume he would have appreciated the modern inventions that decrease the risk and hardship of travel needed to accomplish tasks. 

Works Cited

Ibn Faḍlān, Aḥmad, et al. Ibn Fadlān and the Land of Darkness : Arab Travellers in the Far North. Penguin Books, 2012.

Pastuch, Carissa. “Al-Idrisi’s Masterpiece of Medieval Geography.” Library of Congress Blogs, Jan. 2022, blogs.loc.gov/maps/2022/01/al-idrisis-masterpiece-of-medieval-geography/.

Sturtevant, Paul B. “A Wonder of the Multicultural Medieval World: The Tabula Rogeriana.” The Public Medievalist, 9 Mar. 2017, publicmedievalist.com/greatest-medieval-map/. Accessed 9 Mar. 2017.

Towards the end of the book, Ibn Fadlan describes his long journey from Jurjaniya through the “land of the Turks” to get to his final destination: the king of the Saqaliba. He describes the journey as flat and “desert-like”, but he says that it was still freezing, as it had been in Jurjaniya (Fadlan 11). He and his caravan started this journey in March 922, and they arrived at the end of their journey in May 922, so it took seventy days to travel. 

Ibn Fadlan discusses many different things throughout his travels through the land of the Turks, and they are mostly blunt descriptions and opinions about the people and their customs. He speaks about their “filth and immodesty” on multiple occasions, citing the fact that “[t]heir women do not veil themselves” and they saw a woman’s private parts, which was extremely shocking (Fadlan 12). He is accustomed to women veiling themselves before men, so it was surprising enough that they were not veiled. But when he met a stranger’s wife and saw all of her, he was completely taken aback. This is very different than what happens in Baghdad.

He also mentions their custom of wearing clothes until they fall apart: “I saw the tunic he was wearing under the brocade. It was so filthy it was in rags, for it is their custom never to take off a piece of clothing until it falls to pieces” (Fadlan 20). He seems insulted by these customs, and he finds himself sticking his nose up at them. He believes that these practices are unsophisticated and borderline barbaric, which he does not try to hide in his writings. In a particularly disdainful passage, Fadlan refers to the Bashgirds (a Turkish people) as “the worst of the Turks, the dirtiest and ready to kill” (Fadlan 23). He claims that these people cut off heads for no reason and carry them around like a prize, and eat bugs from off their clothes. 

Based on Ibn Fadlan’s fascination and descriptions of the Turkish people, and his main focus on the negatives and disparities of their ways compared to his own, one could say that Ibn Fadlan believes himself and the place that he comes from to be of a higher class. His writings come off in a sort of snobbish way due to the constant insulting of the Turks and their customs. Now, he does not exclusively insult these people. In some instances, he simply describes, like when he comes across a group that worships snakes and cranes. As a man who is on an expedition for a more religious pursuit on behalf of his caliph, it would be fair to assume he would not approve of the worship of anything other than God, but he does not contest or mock in this circumstance; he only observes and reports. This leads me to believe that he does not care so much about Islam, but more about the customs and the behavior of the people he comes across. He comes from a city, presumably of wealth and sophistication, so it is shocking to him to meet people who do not share the same level he is accustomed to. He makes sure to report these oddities that he comes across for his caliph, possibly, to agree with him and confirm his distaste for these people; or maybe he notes these instances out of pure curiosity and bewilderment. He has traveled all this way, so far from his home city, and he wants to make it known all that he has seen. The crazier the better for stories like these, and Ibn Fadlan goes to great lengths to communicate the extremities he encounters on his journey through the land of the Turks. 

In this section of the book, Ibn Fadlan mostly focuses on the extremely cold climate of Jurjaniya. The way to travel through Jurjaniya was to travel across the Jayhun River; however, due to the frigid weather, the river froze for three months, and they could not cross it. Ibn Fadlan stayed in a house during the duration of his stay, but even in the house, he was freezing. He and his group stayed in Jurjaniya for over three months due to this cold: “The cold and the hardships it causes were the reasons for the length of the stay” (Fadlan 8). He gives an anecdote about how two men took their camels into the woods without the ability to make a fire, and their camels froze to death by the next morning. He also mentions how beggars are even allowed to come inside other people’s homes and sit by the fire while they beg for bread. This place was unbelievably cold, even for those who live there. It was impossible for Ibn Fadlan and his traveling companions to do anything, let alone carry on with their journey, due to these conditions. He describes how his beard froze into “a block of ice,” and how the markets and streets were all bare because no one could withstand the freezing temperatures (Fadlan 9). After three months, the Jayhun River melted, and the group purchased camels and made foldable boats made out of camel skin to continue on their journey. 

I think Ibn Fadlan was particularly scarred by his visit to Jurjaniya due to the coldness. He goes on for multiple pages, intently describing how Jurjaniya was “the cold of hell,” but interestingly enough, he does not speak ill of the people in this city (Fadlan 7). In many different instances of this book, Ibn Fadlan does not hesitate to pass judgment on the people he encounters on his travels, but here, he describes, “The local people, with whom we were on friendly terms, urged us to be prudent as regards to clothing and to take large quantities” (Fadlan 9). I assumed that Ibn Fadlan would not be very friendly or warm to the people of this place because of his horrible experiences, but instead, he does not pass judgment and accepts their help. I also thought Ibn Fadlan might attribute the bitter cold to the people of Jurjaniya, pertaining to the seven climes ideology that was popular during this time, which stated that if the climate of a place was bitterly cold, they were closer to hell. Regardless, he spends a lot of time in Jurjaniya but did not say much about the culture or the people because the cold weather was so insufferable that he could not think about anything else. He may also have included such intense detail about the cold to excuse the delay of his journey. His caliph, back in Baghdad, sent him on this mission to spread his religion to the land of the Turks, and he was the original audience of this book. If Ibn Fadlan returned and the caliph was upset about how long his journey took, Ibn Fadlan would want to have these details that explain, or even exaggerate, the circumstances that led to his delay. 

Ibn Fadlan visits Khwarazm after he and his group leave Bukhara. He mostly focuses on the people he encounters here, as opposed to any descriptions of the city itself. Ibn Fadlan describes the meeting he had with the ruler of Khwarazm. He writes, “He showed us honor, admitted us to his presence and lodged us in a house” (Fadlan 7). The ruler was very hospitable and allowed the group to stay in a house. However, a conflict arose when Ibn Fadlan requested that the ruler grant them passage to travel to the land of the Turks. The ruler tells him that he cannot, in good conscience, permit them to go to the land of the Turks because it is too dangerous. The ruler also believed that there was some kind of “trick” involved in all of this, and that they would need to ask the amir to ask the caliph for permission for the group to continue on their journey (Fadlan 7). Eventually, with some convincing and flattery, the ruler was convinced and allowed them to pass through. Ibn Fadlan also describes the people of Khwarazm in a very unflattering way: “The Khwarazm are the most barbarous of people, both in speech and customs” (Fadlan 7). He describes their language and speaking as “the cries of starlings,” meaning that it is hard on the ear and the equivalent of a squawking bird (Fadlan 7). He also denotes their currency, the tazja, and claims that they are “false, adulterated with lead of bronze” (Fadlan 7). He believes that this currency is inadequate and continues to compare it with his own currency, the dirham. 

Ibn Fadlan arrived in Khwarazm in mid-to-late 921. He left after about a week due to the amount of time it took for him to convince the ruler to carry on with their journey to the land of the Turks. Ibn Fadlan and his group arrived at Khwarazm from Bukhara by boat. They travelled across the river and in “intense cold” for many days (Fadlan 6). Once they got to Khwarazm, they stayed in a house provided by the ruler of Khwarazm. They eventually left Khwarazm by boat and went to Jurjaniya. 

Ibn Fadlan, the writer, clearly demonstrates his purpose for this journey and for whom this book was intended: the caliph who sent him on this mission to spread his faith to the land of the Turks. Ibn Fadlan intently describes his conflict with the Khwarazm Shah Muhammad ibn Iraq, the ruler of Khwarazm, and does not fail to boost his own image while simultaneously questioning the ruler’s thoughts and opinions. Ibn Fadlan quotes the ruler, “‘The caliph has been misled in all of this…You must write to the noble amir, so that he can get in touch with the caliph – may God strengthen him! – by letter’” (Fadlan 7). Ibn Fadlan specifically writes down that the ruler thinks that the caliph is being fooled, which the caliph will not look kindly on. He is a powerful ruler and commands respect from all, which is why Ibn Fadlan also incorporates the “may God strengthen him!” message every time the caliph is mentioned throughout conversations. However, Ibn Fadlan highlights the fact that he has a letter from the caliph that approves of the continuation of this journey: “‘Here are the orders of the Commander of the Faithful and his letter. Why refer to him again on this subject?’” (Fadlan 7). This portrays Ibn Fadlan as someone who trusts the caliph’s word and does not want to waste his time, which is how an employee would like to be viewed by their boss. Ibn Fadlan wants the caliph to know that he is focused on his task and that he is honoring the caliph every step of the way. He does not shy away from sacrificing others’ images in the eyes of the caliph to promote his own. He wants this record of information about his journey to reflect what a great job he did on behalf of the caliph.

Map Link:

Category key:

The different icons correspond to the category I selected for each location, which describes Ibn Fadlan’s experience with that location. 

The star icon – Mark Ibn Fadlan’s home and destination for this journey. 

The bed icon – Places where Ibn Fadlan and his group only visited because they needed to break up the trip, and did not do much more than sleep. 

The lightning bolt icon – The places where Ibn Fadlan faced difficulties.

The walking icon – Locations where Ibn Fadlan and his group passed through to get to the next location. 

Ibn Fadlan recounts his journey to Bulghar and describes the people and the culture he observes. He writes about their cleanliness, or lack thereof. He claims, “[The Rus] are the filthiest of God’s creatures” (Fadlan 46) because they remain unwashed after they have sex, use the bathroom, or after they eat. He goes on to mention how they use a basin of water that multiple people share, to use for their washing and grooming needs, as well as spitting and blowing their nose in the same basin of water. Fadlan also focuses on the cultural practices of the Rus, specifically their burial practices. He denotes that there are different protocols for different classes of people. The burial ritual for a poor man is vastly different from that of a wealthy man. The poor man will be placed in a boat and set on fire. If the man were wealthy, then his assets would be divided into three parts: one part given to his family, the other for burial clothes, and the last to make the drink that drugs the slave girl who sacrifices herself for her master, the man who died. 

Ibn Fadlan arrived on May 12, 922, and met the king whom his caliph had sent him to meet. This journey took seventy days for Fadlan and his traveling companions to complete. Fadlan describes various rivers they needed to cross to reach this kingdom. They fashioned boats out of camel skin to get them and all of their belongings across these rivers. For Ibn Fadlan and his caravan to pass through different places, they needed to give something in exchange to gain access to the route, like a toll. They gave bread to a Turkish man who stopped them, and bread, walnuts, a caftan, and other various items to a king who would not let them pass through. Ibn Fadlan’s narrative does not include his exact duration of time spent in Bulghar, but it is assumed that his journey lasted about 18 months in total. 

The way in which Ibn Fadlan describes the people with whom he comes into contact – their dress, customs, religion, and so on – comes off as much more subjective and, at most times, judgmental, alluding to his sense that he knows better than they do. The caliph sent him to educate the Bulghars about the Islamic faith. This mission gives him a sense of superiority, even to the king. He corrects the king and his subjects on the ways of practicing the Islamic faith, including the correct way to recite the iqama, or the prayer that is said aloud. Ibn Fadlan is adamant that the iqama is only said once, but the king orders the muezzin to say the prayer twice. Fadlan hears the prayer said incorrectly and is angered: “When I heard this repetition of the phrases, I ordered the muezzin to stop doing it and shouted at him” (Fadlan 30). Ibn Fadlan feels entitled to yell at the king because of his position as the religious envoy. His superiority turns into snobbishness as he describes the different facets of life he witnesses and finds offensive. He dislikes their cooking methods, where they use fish oil and he claims, “…everything they make with it smells bad” (Fadlan 35). He compares their use of fish oil with his own culture’s method of cooking with olive oil or sesame oil. He believes that this is the proper way to cook food, and their way is wrong. His rejection of their customs continues when it comes to his disagreement with the women not veiling themselves. He tries to enforce this concept on women, but does not succeed. Instead of observing and accepting the customs of the place he has travelled to, he negates their practices and attempts to force his own onto them. His narrative reflects that his purpose for travelling to Bulghar was not to explore the land and its people, but to try to teach them the ways of Baghdad so they can assimilate.