Author: Rebecca Roberts

The Hereford Mappamundi was created after the time that Marco Polo was traveling, but Marco Polo would not have chosen to use it while he was traveling anyway. The Hereford Mappamundi was not created with geography and travel in mind. Its purpose was to be symbolic, and display art and religion in relation to the world as it was understood at the time through a Christian lens. The purpose of a modern map is to be geographically accurate and informed. The modern map would’ve better reflected the distances and landscapes of the places Polo was traveling to.

The Hereford Mappamundi is a T-O map that divides the world into only three continents, Europe, Asia, and Africa. I noticed while I was mapping Armenia and China that they were almost directly next to each other, which is inaccurate to how close they are in reality. The orientation and arrangement of the map distorts the actual distance between the locations. The map is also very obviously Christian oriented. It depicts Jersualem at the center of the map, and the world, and orientates the map with east at the top to represent paradise and heaven. This was one of the biggest differences in mapping on the modern map versus the Hereford Mappamundi. It made it extremely difficult to accurately map the places Polo traveled to on the medieval map. Polo begins his journey in Venice, and to accurately mark where that is, I had to physically take a picture of the modern map and rotate it to the east so I would get a better idea of where everything was located.

The Hereford Mappamundi also uses icons and drawings to represent locations. It has over 500 drawings that have spiritual meanings or depict a curiosity for parts of the world that were unknown. It includes biblical scenes, cities, animals, and depictions of strange people of the world. Some of the drawings were confusing, but others helped me locate the places I was mapping. For example, there is a drawing of an elephant that represents how Indian and Persian solders would use them as fighting platforms, and that story and image helped me find Persia on the map. On the modern map there is a complete arial view of every city in the world. You can see shops, monuments, parks, roads, and topography, which made it significantly easier to map the places Polo traveled to on the map because they were extremely accurate.

Marco Polo is very focused on Christianity throughout his travel narrative. He frequently talks about it, especially when comparing Christianity to other religions he saw. This is where I believe Polo’s travels and the Hereford Mappamundi are the most related. The Hereford Mappamundi is a visual representation of the Christian world as it was understood at the time. Polo would’ve agreed with the way the biblical history was explaining the origins of the world. The drawings that depict monstrous races and the unknown were also depicted by Polo in his travel narrative. He says “…all the men on this island have heads like dogs…” which perfectly matches the dog headed people or Cynocephali featured on the mappamundi (Polo 256). He interprets the people in Asia through a Christian medieval lens, just like the map. Though I do think he would’ve appreciated a map that was more geographically accurate because of his long travels and interest in trade as a merchant. He spends a lot of his travel narrative talking about the time and distance it took to travel to a new place, and a map like the Hereford Mappamundi, would’ve been unhelpful for the practical aspects of his voyages. A modern map would’ve given him a clearer view of the locations he was traveling to.

Marco Polo’s travel narrative gave his predominately Christian audience an interesting perspective of the world and how it related to their view of Christianity. The Hereford Mappamundi would’ve reflected this world view but been inaccurate in regard to the geographical locations and distances between the places Polo traveled to. Its purpose was to create a map that could be considered a work of art and reflect Christianity in regard to the world. A modern map would’ve been useful to Marco Polo’s travels but couldn’t reflect an accurate picture of how a Christian would view the world like he did at the time. The differences between the maps show how the ideas of the world influence the way the physical locations are shown, versus the spiritual meanings.

Map: https://storymap.knightlab.com/edit/?id=marco-polo-travel-map

Marco Polo describes Japan as a large island far out at sea, about 1,500 miles away from the mainland. He describes the inhabitants as “…fair-complexioned, good-looking, and well-mannered” (Polo 244). However, he does call them idolaters, meaning he views their religion as strange or wrong. Interestingly, he notes that they are independent and “…exercising no authority over any nation but themselves,” which is different from the places Polo has previously described (Polo 244). He makes Japan seem like a distant and isolated place that’s completely separated from everywhere else.

Polo says that Japan has gold in great abundance, in quantities so great they can’t be measured. He says that they don’t export it from the island because no traders go there, which is how they possess so much of it. They possess so much that one ruler’s palace is made out of gold. The island also has pearls, which are just as valuable as the white ones and also have a spiritual significance, like the pearls in Maabar. This is shown through their custom of placing pearls in the mouths of the dead when they are buried. By describing Japan’s gold and pearls, Polo shows how much wealth and trade matter to him and have been important throughout his travels. It’s something he values and continues to share with his audience.

Polo says the people’s idols here are similar to those in Cathay and Manzi. Then, his tone noticeably shifts, and he begins to describe the idols in an exaggerated and judgmental way. He says they have animal heads, multiple heads, or multiple hands and that the works of the idols are “…so manifold and of such devilish contrivance….” He claims he can’t write about them in his book because it’s too horrible to expose to his Christian audience (Polo 247). While Polo is often judgmental of religions outside of Christianity, here he seems particularly hostile to the ideologies of these people. He also again contrasts between admiring the physical region, trade, or people of a place, and condemning their beliefs and practices.

Polo ends his account by writing that the people of Japan “…kill their captive and make a meal of him with their kinsfolk….and this human flesh they consider the choicest of all foods” (Polo 248). This detail exposes how little Polo actually knows about Japan and how the stereotypes of the East were spread in medieval Europe. By describing them as cannibals he creates fear and pushes stereotypes to his European audience, so the East is seen as distant, savage, and strange, and Christianity is framed as the most moral religion. Polo finishes writing, “…I will tell you no more of this country or of these islands, because they are so out-of-the-way and because we have never been there” (Polo 249). It’s extremely interesting that Polo admits he never visited Japan, despite describing it in vivid detail. This confession perfectly places Japan as the furthest point on his journey, so far away that it seems more like an exotic idea than a reality.

Marco Polo sailed westward for about sixty miles from Ceylon and arrives in Maabar, or Greater India. He calls Maabar “…the best part of India,” describing it as the “richest and most splendid province in the world” (Polo 260). Polo’s account focuses on the region’s foreign customs, trading practices, climate, religion, and extraordinary wealth, which is especially interesting to Polo, probably because of his background as a merchant.

Polo focuses particular attention to the precious pearls and gems that are found in Maabar in the sea between the island and the mainland. They are the foundation of the regions good fortune. Merchants form partnerships with each other during the spring months to dive and fish for these pearls that are not only monetarily valuable but are also a symbol of social status and religious commitment. The king himself wears “…so many gems and pearls that their price exceeds that of a fine city” (Polo 262). His necklace of 104 pearls represents the 104 prayers he recites to his idols every morning and night. Polo seems impressed by this commerce and representation of status and often admires the king. Besides for his gems and pearls, the king, and everyone else in Maabar, is stark naked all year round. Polo credits this to the extremely hot and humid climate. The only time the region gets rain is during the summer months, and without that rain the heat would be unbearable. Yet Polo is very clear through his writing that he finds this strange. The idea of nakedness is so unnatural to him and disrupts his own cultural expectations. During his recount, he frequently shifts between admirations for the culture, and disapproval to things he finds unnatural.

The pearls are the driving force behind the large trading scene in Maabar, and it interests Polo. The king issues a proclamation several times a year, that encourages merchants to bring him their finest pearls and gems, which he then buys at twice their value. Polo admires the trade and customs here, but he is also fascinated by the omens and “superstitions” that surround trade, like the unlucky hour of choiach where merchants refuse to bargain or buy. Or judging whether a bargain is good or bad based off of where a tarantula cries. Polo doesn’t explicitly judge or mock these customs, but his tone suggest that he likely recorded them to be marveled by his European audience and to emphasize how far he’s traveled from home.

Beyond trading customs, Polo admires the strict justice system of the province, noting his pleasant surprise that merchants and nobles can sleep on the highway during their merchant travels without being scared of theft saying, “It is a proof of the excellent justice kept by the king…” (Polo 271). But Polo is disturbed, by the region’s marriage and death customs, specifically self-immolation, which is the practice of a widow burning herself to death alongside her husband during his funeral. He says, “And I assure you that there are many who do as I have told you” (Polo 265). He feels like he has to emphasize himself to prove that these customs really do occur, because to him it seems so unbelievable.

Polo’s account not only describes the interesting culture of Maabar but also reveals information about his own cultural norms. He portrays the region and India as an unbelievable place that is so different from his own to his European audience.

When Marco Polo begins chapter two, he is starting to enter the Cathay region, hence the title, “The Road to Cathay.” One of the stops he describes along his route is “Kan-chu”, a large city in the Tangut province and the capital. He first notes that this province is located in the east-northeast, and that it takes ten days to travel to. At the end of the ten days, the traveler arrives at “Su-chau,” which is a province that forms part of the major province of Tangut. Polo describes this area as a very mountainous region with a healthy climate. He specifically notes that the inhabitants are brown-skinned. He also says that rhubarb grows in abundance there and is specifically bought by merchants who export it. He says the people here live off the produce and don’t deal with trade. I find it very insightful that Polo takes note of this, as trade continues to mean a lot to him as a merchant himself.

Upon reaching Kan-chu, Polo identifies it as the capital of the province and begins to describe its inhabitants. He says most of them are “idolaters,” a term used by the European Christian culture to describe or condemn individuals who worshiped gods or images rather than following Christianity or Islam. He does note that some are Mahometan or Christian. Polo describes the idolaters as having a vast quantity of idols, and that they are big and recumbent. Polo then spends a significant amount of time explaining the customs of the idolaters. Idolaters “…who live under a religious rule lead more virtuous lives than the others” (91). It’s important that he takes note of Christianity still being somewhat prevalent in Kan-chu, because it reassures his audience that there is Christianity in this part of the world and gives them something to relate to.

He cites specifically that the idolaters avoid lechery, or excessive lust. However, he adds that women may initiate relations with men without sin, while men who make the first advances are punished severely. They were punished, sometimes even with death, for their “unnatural” acts. He describes how the idolaters mark time by lunar cycles as we distinguish months. During one cycle, all idolaters don’t kill or eat animals and strive to live more virtuously, with some abstaining from consuming meat all their lives. Polo can recognize the moral difference and discipline in these acts, but his tolerance fades regarding marriage customs. He notes that men can have up to thirty wives or more, depending on wealth, and they must give wives a marriage portion in cattle, slaves, and money. The first wife holds the highest status, and if a wife displeases her husband, he can “put her away and do as he likes” (Polo). Polo is particularly disturbed by marriages between cousins or between men and their fathers’ widows, which he considers sinful. He writes, “many we regard as sins are not sins to them, they are beasts” (Polo). I find it particularly interesting that he uses language like “beasts,” because it is in his language that we can see how he feels about these natives and how weird he finds their marriage customs. Clearly, religion and the common marriage associated with it are important to Polo. His experiences and understanding of this place and his travels are filtered through his identities, like being a merchant or a Christian.

Rebecca Roberts

10/9/25

Map Link:

https://www.google.com/maps/d/u/0/edit?mid=1dFC_i5o6dFNlABaNC-yVjRnl9nmoOAs&usp=sharing

My map is categorized based on Marco Polo’s focus at each location on his journey. The blue markers (Khan-Balik, T’ai-yuan-fu, Si-ngan-fu, Ch’êng-tu-fu) are places where Polo gives a descriptive and detailed account of the location. They’re often the capitals or main trade and industry centers. The locations marked yellow (Cho-chau, P’ing-yang-fu, Ho-chung-fu) are places where Polo valued and discussed the place’s functions more than his commentary about the places. They were almost like a pitstop, and he wasn’t staying for a long time. The locations marked dark red (Kara-moran, Han-chung, Tibet) are places where Polo was focused on or impacted by its terrain and landscape.

In the opening chapter of The Travels of Marco Polo, Armenia is the first region Marco describes on his journey. He divides the area into two distinct sections of Lesser Armenia and Greater Armenia. As we discussed in class, I would describe Polo’s writing, at least in this first chapter, as a travel account rather than a travel narrative. His style is very factual, objective, and focused on details a European audience would be interested in, like geography, trade, religious affiliations, and politics.

Polo begins with his description of Lesser Armenia, focusing specifically on the bustling town of Ayas, which he describes as a “busy emporium” (46). Polo notes that goods like spices and cloth are brought to this town to be sold to merchants from cities like Venice and Genoa, who traveled there to trade. He specifically says that “…merchants and others who wish to penetrate the interior all make this town the starting-point of their journey,” meaning that Ayas functions as a gateway for merchants or other travelers to trade or purchase goods and then continue their travels (46). Polo also focuses on the religious affiliation and geographical location of Lesser Armenia. When describing the land surrounding the region, Polo mentions ships that are “…sailing to Christendom,” referring to Christian Europe. It’s important to note that Polo is commenting on religion because it’s clearly something important to not only himself but also the potential readers and intended audience of his travel writing. Towards the end of this section, Polo also briefly describes the surrounding people and their beliefs. His tone becomes more subjective when describing the Turcomans, saying that they speak a “…barbarous language,” which reflects the views of the region and politics at the time (46). It also may reflect his idea of his own status and his perspective that he is above this other race.

Polo then describes Greater Armenia and another busy city there called Erzincan, located near the entrance to the province. He highlights that this city is also important for trade and is known for making the best buckram. Other crafts are also practiced and perfected there. Polo notes the “inhabitants are Armenians and vassals of the Tartar,” meaning the people living there are ethnically Armenian, but politically subordinate to the Tartars. He finally writes that the city is the seat of an archbishop and hosts Tartars in the summertime. I think it’s important again to recognize that Polo specifically includes these details with the image of his European audience in mind and includes information about religion and politics.

Polo’s focus on geography, trade, religious affiliations, and politics in his recounting of Lesser and Greater Armenia shows more about his culture based on his observations and his purpose for recording this information. Polo’s father and uncle were distinguished and respected merchants who included young Marco Polo in their travels. Because of this background, Polo clearly understands the importance of economics and trade in other regions, and it is something he specifically pays attention to throughout his account. He also repeatedly references Christianity and Christian leadership, which may reflect his personal feelings, but also suggests that he is catering to a European audience in his mind. Polo was a well-respected writer, and in the prologue it says, “When Marco went on his mission…he paid close attention to all the novelties and curiosities that came his way, so that he might retail them to the Great Khan…he went on to recount all the…things he had seen on the way, so well…” (41). This quote shows how Polo is respected and seen as a trustworthy source, but also writes to powerful figures, which influences what he writes about and how much detail he includes. Overall, Polo’s recounting of Lesser and Greater Armenia is a powerful introduction to his journey and travel writing and reflects his unique perspective as a merchant traveler and his intent to inform his European audience, potentially interested in trade, politics, and religion of different regions.