Author: Violet Torres

Link to the Map: https://uploads.knightlab.com/storymapjs/8a189b31caf6b10f26b6a6b4e1888875/the-travels-of-ibn-fadlan/index.html

Medieval and Modern Maps

Mapping Ibn Fadlan’s journey on both a modern map and Al Masudi’s World Map reveal how a medieval traveler may see their journey compared to a modern understanding of travel. The two maps showcase different views of the world through the visual and physical elements that they contain or may lack in comparison to each other. Additionally, these maps can help pinpoint areas of significance in the past, such as national identity and difficulties with medieval travels, to give insight to how they have evolved in modern times.

On the surface level, there are physical differences about the visual representations  of each map. Firstly, the modern map has north oriented up, while the medieval map has south at the top. Thus, the direction of Ibn Fadlan’s journey is reversed depending on which map is observed. Al Masudi’s map also shows a significantly smaller portion of the world compared to the modern map. The portion that is shown on the medieval map portrays the land masses disproportionately to their actual size; which, reflects Al Masudi’s knowledge of the world at the time. Additionally, there are geographical differences. In the modern map viewers are able to see different terrain including mountain ranges, deserts, rivers, and larger bodies of water, as well as elevation. There is also the added benefit of being able to zoom in on different areas to get a better understanding of particular destinations. In comparison, Al Masudi’s map only shows rough sketches of mountain ranges, seas, and the ocean. These differences highlight the difficulty of navigating travel in the Middle Ages. Other than a few landmarks, there are very few ways for a medieval traveler to be certain of where they are going by solely utilizing a map. 

Further differences between the two maps can shed light on the various ideas held about the world within both. For example, throughout history humans have become more dependent on politically defined borders to divide countries and express ownership of land. The maps portray this notion through the lack of borders on Al Masudi’s map that are present on the modern map. An idea about the world that this showcases is the dynamic nature of nations and states in the Middle Ages. Empires and states were in constant flux and were either expanding, shrinking, appearing, or disappearing. With fewer means of communication and travel, there was likely less rigidity on national ownership of land especially on the outskirts of a large empire. Paying taxes or tribute was likely the most interaction that occurred between smaller villages and the center of a large nation. The appearance of land borders on the modern map can also signal a growth in national identity over time. Even looking at the travel narratives in class, there is a sense of national identity (portrayed through a form of patriotism or bias toward one’s own country) that develops in the medieval travelers that correlates to the progression of time. Ibn Fadlan, an islamic jurist who lived during the 900s, demonstrates a stronger connection with faith in his identity rather than nationality. This correlates to his placement in time being earlier in the Middle Ages than the other travelers in the class. Additionally, most of his negative views about others come from differences in religion or lack of correct adherence to Islam rather than nationality (Ibn Fadlan). Al Masudi, similarly, was an islamic scholar from the 10th century, and his map reflects the lack of land borders and thus national identity that people may have experienced during his time (Ahmed). Ultimately, the visual differences between the medieval and the modern maps can give insight to ideas of significance for travelers in the Middle Ages.

Compared to our modern understanding of travel, medieval travelers, such as Ibn Fadlan, likely had very different views about their place in the world and the significance of their travels. Ibn Fadlan’s journey seems a lot smaller on the modern map compared to the medieval map, in part due to the limited knowledge in the Middle Ages of the Americas and the vast size of the globe. Subsequently, Ibn Fadlan seems to travel a decent chunk of the world on Al Masudi’s map reflecting Ibn Fadlan’s own ideas about his and his journey’s significance. In the distance he travels, the climate changes drastically and he experiences what he calls “the cold of hell” (Ibn Fadlan 8). The change in climate would coincide with the change in climes, getting closer to hell, and nearing the tribes of Gog and Magog which are at the ends of the Earth. That distance would seem a lot larger in the Middle Ages since the true expansive nature of the world was unknown. Additionally, as seen on Al Masudi’s World Map, Ibn Fadlan’s travel starts at the center of the world—the Middle East—which reflects the importance of the Islamic world to both these men. Ibn Fadlan’s travels end much closer to the edge of the Earth on the medieval map. All land is surrounded by water on the map, but a sense of the unknown persists. Ibn Fadlan is traveling to, what seems to be, the edge of the Earth. His own ideas about his travel likely include a fear of the unknown, an understanding of possible danger, and a sense that he traveled a proportionally larger distance than he actually did. 

Ultimately, looking at a medieval traveler’s journey on both a modern and medieval map can lead to further insights on ideas about travel during the Middle Ages compared to modern times. Ibn Fadlan’s journey drawn out on Al Masudi’s World Map is just one example of this. The map reflects Ibn Fadlan’s attitudes and experiences with travel like the abundance of uncertainty whilst traveling and the fear of the unknown. However, the modern map shows a different story due to a greater knowledge of geography, stabilized state territories, and technological advances over time. 

Works Cited

Ahmed, Nazeer. “Al Masudi.” History of Islam: an encyclopedia of Islamic history, https://historyofislam.com/contents/the-classical-period/al-masudi/ Accessed 20 November 2025. 

“Earth Map according to Al-Masudi.” Wikimedia Commons, 10 July 2022, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Earth_Map_according_to_Al-Masudi.svg Accessed 20 November 2025.

Ibn Fadlān. Ibn Fadlān and the Land of Darkness: Arab Travelers in the Far North. Translated by Paul Lunde, Penguin Classic, 2012.

After Ibn Fadlan and his companions leave Bukhārā, they make their way to Kwārazm. To arrive here, they “hired” a boat and traveled by river (6). This means they did not need to bring their own boats like they do once they are past the Land of the Turks. They began their travel due to the approach of winter, and the distance between Bukhārā and Kwārazm is “200 farsakhs” (6).  Ibn Fadlan writes that the weather was extremely cold making it difficult to travel. They would have to stop on the shore, only traveling for a certain amount of time each day, due to the freezing temperatures. Once they arrive in Kwārazm, Ibn Fadlan stays in the house of the leader. After a few days, Ibn Fadlan and others are given an audience with the leader who does not believe their journey is genuine (believing the Caliph is being misled).  After some time, Ibn Fadlan and his fellow travelers are able to convince the leader of Kwārazm to let them leave. To get to their next stop, Jurjāniya, they must also travel by river for “50 farsakhs” (7).

One of the things Ibn Fadlan takes note of in this area is the money. He records how much the coins weigh and the names for them. He claims their dirhams are faulty, and he states the dirhams are “adulterated with lead or bronze” (7). Additionally, Ibn Fadlan observes the language of the people of Kwārazm and neighboring villages. He claims their language sounds like “the cries of starlings” or “the croaking of frogs,” while simultaneously calling the people “barbarous” (7-8). At the end of the section, Ibn Fadlan mentions that the people in a village nearby “deny the legitimacy of the Commander of the Faithful (…) at the end of every prayer” (8).

While Ibn Fadlan does not focus on the culture or customs of the people in Kwārazm, what he does focus on, coinage and language, reveals a possible purpose for recording this area. A lot of what Ibn Fadlan discusses in this section is likely a report for the Caliph. A change in coinage can affect people traveling through the caliphate. If they are using faulty, not to standard money (or what Ibn Fadlan views as faulty), that can be a potential political issue that the Caliph needs to know about if more travelers are sent to the area (especially if they need to make purchases). Or if they are worried about potential scams regarding travelers or tax collection and tribute. Also, the people around Kwārazm supposedly denying the power of the commander of the faithful can be concerning for the Caliph’s power. Lastly, Ibn Fadlan’s focus on language likely stems from cultural differences. Hearing a new language is likely jarring. It also means he cannot communicate as effectively in this region (needing a translator). Most people are going to be biased toward their own language. However, the adjectives he uses to describe their language is likely rooted in bigotry. These cultural differences likely cast a shadow on his perceptions of the people in Kwārazm.

Ibn Fadlān. Ibn Fadlān and the Land of Darkness: Arab Travelers in the Far North. Translated by Paul Lunde, Penguin Classic, 2012.

From pages 23 to 25 Ibn Fadlan passes through a Turkish territory, and the people he meets he calls the Bāshghirds. The caravan had to cross many rivers before entering the land of the Bāshghirds. Interestingly none of the names of the rivers appear on the map, “The Journey of Ibn Fadlān, 921-922” (suggesting the names may have changed). Ibn Fadlan and his fellow travelers had to journey on these rivers on “folding boats made of camel skin” (22). He was impressed by the Jāyikh river which he says is “the most impressive and the swiftest” river he has seen (23). Additionally, the river they crossed to get to the land of the Bāshghirds was the Kunjulū. To leave the land of the Bāshghirds they also had to cross a river called the Jirimshān (and then many others). This is an interesting aspect, because there were very few concrete political borders at this time. The rivers, somewhat, outline the lands of different groups. This suggest that there was a reliance on natural borders at the time to define where people lived. When Ibn Fadlan is among the Bāshghirds he focuses on their religious and spiritual practices/customs. He observes that they keep wooden phalluses with them and some of them believe in twelve lords who oversee different aspects of the earth. Ibn Fadlan also observes religious differences amongst the Bāshghirds. He states, “We saw a clan that worships snakes and another that worships fish and another that worships cranes” (24). Beyond religion, Ibn Fadlan describes these people as “dirty” (23). He claims they eat lice and fleas after he witnesses one man do so.

                  In this section there is an emphasis on cultural divisions. Ibn Fadlan’s tone does not come off as judgmental or dismissive when he discusses their religious practices. It is indifferent and just sounds like he is recording what he sees. The part where his tone changes is in relation to their cleanliness and eating bugs. He calls them the “dirtiest” along with the “worst” which emphasizes his relationship to cleanliness. Ibn Fadlan’s deep connection to his faith and his job (Islamic Jurist) likely influence his perceptions. He is indifferent to their religious practices because the Bāshghirds are not Islamic, however, Ibn would take cleaning rituals very seriously. Therefore, he may associate moral value with dirtiness or cleanliness.

                  Additionally, Ibn Fadlan’s connection to his job and faith further influences his perceptions based on geography. Ibn Fadlan does not stay in the Bāsghird’s territory for very long based on his writings. A majority of what he witnesses (despite the instance with the man supposedly eating a flea) is their religion to which he is indifferent. Yet, he immediately makes assumptions about their qualities. He calls the Bāshghirds “the worst of the Turks” (23). This group of people also happen to be in the most northern part of Turkish territory (right before entering another territory-Bulghar). His perceptions of people are progressively becoming more negative as he advances north; which he would like associate with Hell and the tribes of Gog and Magog. Therefore, despite his short stay with these people, he considers them poorly and dislikes them immediately.

Ibn Fadlān. Ibn Fadlān and the Land of Darkness: Arab Travelers in the Far North.Translated by Paul Lunde, Penguin Classic, 2012.

The first major stop that Ibn Fadlan describes is his caravan’s stay in Bukhara. This is a settlement some miles away from the Jayhun river (Amu Darya). Ibn Fadlan must cross the Amul desert via camel and rent a boat to cross the river. He then stays in Baykand before finally ending up in Bukhara (4).

                  The nature of their stay is different from their other stops (which are primarily utilized to rest and recharge). Ibn Fadlan and his caravan are expecting to meet Ahmad Ibn Musa during the first few days of their stay in Bukhara. The Amir, Nasr ibn Ahmad, is supposed to give the money (taken from a Fadl Ibn Musa’s estate due to a form of legal action) to Ahmad Ibn Musa so the caravan can bring it to the King of the Bulghars (5). However, Ibn Fadlan waits for twenty-eight days, and Ahmad Ibn Musa never shows up, so the caravan must carry on because of the weather.

                  While in Bukhara, Ibn Fadlan does not mention much about the place or the people. He does, however, write about the money in Bukhara: “I saw different kinds of dirhams in Bukhara, some called ghitrifidirhams, made of copper, brass and bronze” (6). He says this form of money is used to pay marriage dowries and the selling of slaves and property. He iterates this in a neutral way; however, he does mention that the coins are “counted out, without being weighed” (6). This remark makes Ibn Fadlan come off as skeptical like he does not trust this method of payment. Considering he is encountering this different form of payment for the first time, he could have added this passage to inform others (the Caliph and anyone else who may read his writing) and exercise caution around new coinage as it may not be exact in worth. Additionally, Ibn Fadlan’s interest in the coinage of Bukhara is likely because the caravan stopped there to collect a sum of money and failed. Therefore, he writes about the money and its possible fraudulence as a mode of defense.

                  In this passage as a whole, Ibn Fadlan is very detailed when talking about meeting with the Amir and what happened to Ahmad Ibn Musa (he gets captured by people working for Fadl Ibn Musa). He is also very certain of himself when reiterating what happened to Ahmad Ibn Musa (despite the likelihood that he did not find out Ibn Musa’s fate for some time) using phrases like “in fact” and “he wrote as follows” (5). Ibn Fadlan’s purpose for this could be to defend himself and his caravan from retaliation from the Caliph or the King of the Bulghars due to their failure to obtain the money. Ibn Fadlan writes that he was told, “If we stay any longer, winter will come and we will not be able to travel” (6). For the sake of the mission as a whole, the caravan had to leave. Ibn Fadlan is making sure to write this down; they had no other choice, and they did all they could.

Ibn Fadlān. Ibn Fadlān and the Land of Darkness: Arab Travelers in the Far North.Translated by Paul Lunde, Penguin Classic, 2012.

Mapping Link: https://www.google.com/maps/d/u/0/edit?mid=1KkXuoGbWTl7zwncmnP96q1LLvaqz4sc&usp=sharing

Key For Categories

On pages eight through ten, Ibn Fadlan records his time in Jujānīya which is located near the Jayhún river and “fifty farsakhs” from Khwārazm when traveling on the river (7). Ibn Fadlan and his group stay in Jurjānīya for many days before the river began to freeze. Once this happens, they are stuck for about three months here. He relates the months as those of “Rajab” (the end of said month) “Sha’ban, Ramadān and Shawwāl,” and records that it was around “the middle of the month of Shawwāl 309/ February 922” that they were able to finally leave (8-9).

            During their three months stay, Ibn Fadlan focuses largely on the weather, He is very specific about the cold weather. He says the Jayhún river was covered in “ice [that] was seventeen spans thick” and that “when snow falls, it is always accompanied by a rough and violent wind” (8).

            He seems relatively indifferent about the specific people in this region. He does not say anything judgmental nor very descriptive of who they are. Although, he does mention that they were friendly. He records the prices of their firewood. He only mentions two customs. One being that when a person wants to invite a person over out of gratitude they say, “Come to my house where we can talk, for there is a good fire there” (8). Additionally, it is custom that the beggars in this area just walk right into the houses and warm up before asking for food. Ibn Fadlan also writes of a story he heard about two men forgetting their tools to make a fire, so after a night in the cold, their camels died (9).

            Ibn Fadlan, in this section, does relay information about his own experience with the cold in Jujānīya, most of which are negative. He says his beard froze after he washed. He says his lodgings were “a house, inside which was another, inside which was a Turkish felt tent” and despite these precautions and the addition of many blankets, his face froze to the fabric of his pillow (9). Ibn Fadlan also details the vegetation, specifically trees, breaking in half from the cold.

            When he and his companions leave, they gather enough food for three months, some camels, and boats made from the skin of camels to make their journey. Additionally, they must dawn “a tunic,” “caftan,” “a cloak of sheepskin,” “a felt outer garment, with a head covering,” “ a plain pair of trousers and another padded pair, socks, horse-hide boots and over those boots, other boots” (9-10).

            This entire section entirely relates back to the freezing weather Ibn Fadlan is experiencing. Every detail, custom, and experience he mentions can be tied to the weather. While there is very little emotion in his words, it is clear he is dismayed and bewildered by the extent of the cold weather. He even expresses disbelief with the amount of clothes they needed to wear to leave this region and that it was “twice as bad as [he] had been told” (9). His indication of seeing the cold’s effect on nature showcases his growing fear: “I saw the Earth split” (9).

            In class, we talked about the climes, and how the further north one travel’s the closer to hell they get (in Islamic belief at that time). Hell is bad and cold. It is also where the dangerous tribes of Gog and Magog are trapped behind a wall. In this section Ibn Fadlan says this experience was “a gate to the cold of hell” (8). He believes he is approaching more danger than just the weather with his continued journey. This predisposes his later thoughts of the Ghuzz Turks to already be negative, because it is cold, and he is closer to hell. Additionally, Ibn Fadlan is only about halfway through his journey to Bulghar. Which means, he believes his journey and the climate are only going to get worse (and they are already bad). Overall, there are slightly sarcastic/dismayed undertones to this section which is likely a message to the Caliph expressing how much worse Ibn Fadlan’s journey is going to get, and how he is very upset about it.

Ibn Fadlān. Ibn Fadlān and the Land of Darkness: Arab Travelers in the Far North. Translated by Paul Lunde, Penguin Classic, 2012.

Between pages 11 and 21 of the text, Ibn Fadlan describes his encounter with the Ghuzz Turks. The overall location of this section is unknown, however, he describes having left a place called Jīt before this section begins, and he mentions crossing a river called the Yaghindī (which does not appear on the map) and another called Jām (which is shown on the map). Since Ibn Fadlan describes the Ghuzz Turks as being nomadic, the lack of specified town or territory makes sense as they would be in constant movement across the land (11). He also walks through the territory encountering different groups of Turks throughout this section (although they are all under the same rule).

                  Ibn Fadlan focuses heavily on the customs of the Ghuzz Turks. He records his disgust of their lack of washing. He is similarly dismayed that “their women do not veil themselves” (12). Both situations he experienced as a first-hand account, although, most of the information he is reiterating from another unknown source. The most prevalent themes of their culture he discusses are marriage, punishment, and responsibility. He also discusses religion with their leader and a few of the people. Interestingly, he specifically mentions the gifts he gives the leaders. Ināl, the first leader, is given “a caftan (…), a piece of cloth [pay-baf], round loaves of bread, a handful of raisins and a hundred walnuts” (17). Later on Tarkhan is gifted “a robe of honour” and the others, “pepper, millet and round loaves of bread” (21).

                  There are few physical aspects of Ibn Fadlan’s actual journey within this region. The first authority figure they meet is Ināl, but they do not seem to stay very long. The next stop they run into a Turk who refuses to let them continue until they gift him bread. Their final stop is with Atrak, “the commander of their troops,” and his location is past the end of their territory (19). They get stuck here due to the distrust of Atrak and his trusted personnel. They did not believe Ibn Fadlan and his fellow envoys were on a legitimate mission as they had never heard of such a mission before. After seven days, they are allowed to leave. It is mentioned they are travelling on horse and/or camels. Additionally, they are travelling with an interpreter, meaning that there is a language barrier.

                  The sections where Ibn Fadlan is more critical are largely about cleanliness, lack of modesty, and travel. The two former themes coincide with the Islamic practices of ritual washing and women wearing the veil. Ibn Fadlan clearly feels strongly about his faith as a scholar of Islamic law, but he also feels strongly about other people following the rules of Islam. However, in this section he does not record telling the Turks what is considered correct to him. This implies his trip is not necessarily about converting the people as much as the leaders (Atrak receives a letter about conversion). If the leader converts, perhaps it is assumed their people will also convert. Additionally, he is very judgmental about the Ghuzz Turks being nomads. This suggests his dismay with either not settling down or consistent travel. He is on this journey for the Caliph, and it is implied that the Turks have never really encountered many envoys from Baghdad. So, Ibn Fadlan’s journey may be the first of its kind sent out in a long time, and possibly his first travel experience. His disapproval of nomadic lifestyle could be reflective of his own dislike of travel, inexperience, or overall preference of settling in one space.

                  Some of Ibn Fadlan’s remarks are less critical and more descriptive. These are likely updates for the Caliph on the condition of the people under his rule. One thing that specifically sticks out however is the gifts for the leaders. It could be Ibn Fadlan’s written evidence that he is following the Caliph’s orders (if he ordered gifts to be given). Considering the introduction of the travel narrative and Ibn Fadlan’s warning (in reference to the money he and his envoy were unable to secure, in which he writes about the blame not falling on him), it is clear he likes to be meticulous as to remove blame from himself if something goes awry. In this case, it may be for the sake of book keeping and proof that he is carrying out proper customs (providing gifts to leaders).

Citation:

Ibn Fadlān. Ibn Fadlān and the Land of Darkness: Arab Travellers in the Far North. Translated by Paul Lunde, Penguin Classic, 2012.