Author: teti

In The Picture of Dorian Gray, should Dorian be omitted from the blame for his participation in Sibyl Vane’s suicide? Is he clinically insane? Does he understand the awareness that his actions/thinking are wrong? The narrative this novel seems to hold is that Dorian genuinely believes he is a good person who has done no wrong (up until the point where he kills Basil). Dorian can feel emotions of ecstasy or elation when he is complimented and questions his, “secret pleasure, at the misshapen shadow that had to bear the burden that should have been his own” (Wilde 119). The dreamlike, detailed, and flowery language of this scene almost sets it up to be read as illusory, Dorian’s words can’t be trusted to reflect his honest emotions. Here we can notice a moment of slight remorse and guilt where Dorian acknowledges he is doing a wrong deed by not reflecting/working through his emotions. However, Dorian chooses to bury his emotions in the painting to deal with and rot.  

The death of Sibyl paired with Dorian’s selfish wrongdoings physically alter the painting and marks the beginning of the end for Dorian. Dorian did feel slight remorse for Sibly initially on his own accord before speaking with Lord Henry about his conflicting feelings. Although Lord Henry was not present for Dorian and Sibyl’s last conversation, he sure does have a lot to say when relieving Dorian’s guilty conscience. Lord Henry reasons Sibly, “never really lived, and so she has never really died… don’t waste your tears over Sibyl Vane. She was less real than they are” (Wilde 89). ‘They’ meaning all the Shakespearean female lead characters she performed at the theater, such as Juliet, Ophelia, or Cordelia. Not only does Lord Henry dehumanize Sibyl to fictional characters, but he succeeds in relinquishing Dorian of any guilt for his wickedness towards Sibyl. What I really am trying to say here is: do these scenes illuminate a sort of ambivalence in taking a stance on whether Dorian is aware of the calamity of his actions in Sibyl’s death, and should he be absolved from them? The unreliable, hedonistic protagonist (+ antagonist?) demonstrates an ability to question his emotions but makes a conscious choice to bury them deep down. He can, at the very least, begin to understand his implication in Sibyl’s death before his best friend and idol, Lord Henry, guides him otherwise.

“The Bicycle Suit,” cartoon from Punch, 1895.

“we can make photographs! We have had this studio, with every proper arrangement for light and other things, so that we are not mere amateurs. Why not turn to account the only thing we can do, and start as professional photographers? We should all keep together. It would be a risk, but if we failed we should be very little worse off than before. I know what Lucy thinks of it, already. What have you others to say to it?”

“Oh, Gertrude, need it come to that—to open a shop?” cried Fanny, aghast.

“Fanny, you are behind the age,” said Lucy, hastily. “Don’t you know that it is quite distinguished to keep a shop? That poets sell wall-papers, and first-class honour men sell lamps? That Girton students make bonnets, and are thought none the worse of for doing so?”

“I think it a perfectly splendid idea,” cried Phyllis, sitting up; “we shall be like that good young man in Le Nabab.”

“Indeed, I hope we shall not be like André,” said Gertrude, sitting down by Phyllis on the couch and putting her arm round her, “especially as none of us are likely to write successful tragedies by way of compensation.”

“You two people are getting frivolous,” remarked Lucy, severely, “and there are so many things to consider.”

“First of all,” answered Gertrude, “I want to convince Fanny. Think of all the dull little ways by which women, ladies, are generally reduced to earning their living! But a business—that is so different. It is progressive; a creature capable of growth; the very qualities in which women’s work is dreadfully lacking.” (Levy 9-10).

Amy Levy’s novel The Romance of a Shop can be thought of as proto-feminist at best for its introduction of radical ideas for its time. Women in the 19th century had limited options in improving their class status. Previously, for women to secure a future it was attained through marriage since it was looked down at the time for women to work. Not every woman was afforded the same luck and opportunity to be married thus necessitating an “acceptable” career for women as domestic servants or governess. Levy’s viewpoints can be detected through her introduction to the “New Woman” ideal, a woman who is active in the public sphere and supports herself financially. Although these recently orphaned sisters display radical characteristics in successfully pursuing a hobby in photography to support themselves, they once again return to what is expected of them: marriage.

Gertrude spearheads questions of opening a photography shop to her sisters to financially support themselves. She thinks responsibly and reasons even if they fail, they “should be very little worse off than before” (Levy 9). Gertrude outweighs the possible benefits or consequences and comes to the calculated conclusion any movement forward should be an improvement to their current situation. Fanny, the eldest daughter, laments “need it come to that—to open a shop?” and cries at the thought of being so involved in the public sphere (Levy 9). Fanny acts as an anomaly to her younger, more radical sisters as Fanny is more traditional in her mindset. She symbolizes how women at the time ought to have behaved similarly to their Aunt Caroline who was critical of their modern views on womanhood.

To convince Gertrude’s sister of her new business proposition she argues her ideas are progressive and “all the dull little ways by which woman, ladies, are generally reduced to earn their livings… the very qualities in which women’s work is dreadfully lacking” (Levy 10). Levy utilizes Gertrude to hint at her personal opinions regarding women working and the constraints imposed by society. Opportunities for women to provide for themselves are lacking and Gertrude questions why they should not be allowed to pursue their hobbies to make a living for themselves. The New Woman is to not be confused with the modern woman, this novel only comfortably allows discussion of the emerging new woman and her “masculine” personality for seeking agency and authority. It simply introduces such ideas and though they do succeed in opening a shop, in the end, they all behave as they were originally expected to, which was to seek marriage. Near the end of the novel each sister, disregarding Phyllis’s untimely death, magically ends up in a happy marriage and is well taken care of. Although Lucy continues to work at the shop after marriage the author does not allow either sister to be happy by themselves. They must conform to the expectations of their time to neatly wrap up their story with a bow. This novel allows for the introduction of proto-feminist ideas in its conception but ultimately abides by gender roles applied at the time in ending with submissive wives.

In Bram Stoker’s Dracula, Chapter XVI explores the tribulations that the Crew of Light endured in hunting down Lucy’s body to properly dispose of it permanently and amend it to her proper pure form. Christopher Craft wrote a scholarly article,“‘Kiss Me with The Red Lips’: Gender and Inversion in Bram Stoker’s Dracula,” discussing the anxieties present in late Victorian culture revolving around desire, gender, and sexual inversion. Lucy’s initial conversion to vampirism catapults anxiety as all her doting suitors try to help her in any way possible while simultaneously detesting her new devilish form.

Lucy is privileged enough through her beauty to have a band of men willing to not only donate blood but kill Dracula to restore her tainted name and to a lesser degree save humanity from further bloodshed. The Crew of Light’s main intention was to “fix” Lucy from her warped, vampiric ways by each taking a turn at transfusing blood to satisfy her hunger, however, ultimately futile that is when the crew rethinks their master plan and redirect their frustrations on Dracula’s penetrations. Craft believes Van Helsing sees merit in “corrective penetration” acting as “a masculine prerogative” where “a woman is better still than mobile, better dead than sexual” (Craft 455). Thus, the men band together to come up with a plan to penetrate Lucy with a wooden stake and decapitate her to allow her soul to rest in heaven. Although the crew works under the guise of restoring Lucy’s corrupted soul, they still inflict masculine authority such as referencing the bible as “him” from which they will read to complete the ritual. Personifying the bible as a masculine being further reiterates the notion that men must be in positions of authority even in situations where they may physically and emotionally be inferior to such supernatural beings. Craft agrees that the novel believes “the penis shall not be erased, and if it is erased, that it shall be reinscribed in a perverse simulacrum” (Craft 453). Men are not allowed to be subverted and if their authority is challenged it must work to reestablish the hierarchical gender norms prevalent at this time.

Although Arthur had to “share” Lucy when asking other members of the Crew of Light to donate blood he restates his position as “top dog,” since he is the fiancé, by being the chosen one to kill Lucy. Once Arthur’s “mind was set on action his hands never trembled nor even quivered,” meaning he never displayed hesitation in mutilating his fiancée (Stoker 230). Arthur, as her Fiancé, felt authorized to save Lucy’s tainted soul and rightly return her to her pure self. He felt so confident in his role as the masculine partner saving her soul that he did not feel the need to hesitate in fixing what was rightly “his.” His marriage was prematurely taken away by Dracula’s initial vampiric penetration, but Arthur triumphs over the Count as he permanently sets Lucy to rest. Throughout this chapter the Crew of Light belittles Lucy through dehumanizing language, effectively asserting their authority above female agency. They constantly describe Lucy as a monster, devil, or “foul thing” (Stoker 231). The diction used here to describe Lucy’s passing comes straight from a horror novel as she contorts her body like a supernatural creature such as the exorcist or the grudge. She also died like a rabid animal with “crimson foam” at her mouth and penetrating her own mouth with her fangs insinuating she was behaving maniacal (Stoker 230).

Although Lucy behaved outside of her gender norms by engaging in sexual promiscuity and endangering children, Arthur, as her fiancé, must work to reassert his position over her by killing her. This novel is too afraid to provocatively “go there” without affording the male, “righteous” characters an opportunity to reestablish gender hierarchies. The inversion of the penis cannot remain this way, Craft illuminates the anxieties of its time to validate the correct forms of penetration where it must fall within matrimony and between a woman and a man.

In Bram Stoker’s Dracula, Chapter V explores letters between Lucy and Mina discussing Lucy’s multiple proposals and their respective relationships. Notions of polyamory and twisted gender hierarchies can be analyzed here to illuminate Lucy’s influence on men. However, when considering the context of its time Lucy must still abide by gender roles of obedience thus making letter writing a safe alternative for women to be their most authentic selves.

The opening of this passage poses a question: “why are men so noble when we women are so little worthy of them?” (Stoker 67). Lucy questioning her virtues and character for rejecting her suitor’s proposals follows the gender norms of its time. During the fin-de-siecle, the “New Woman” emerged as a controversial term designating women’s expansion into the public sphere as they grew more visible and mobile. Lucy balances a fine line teetering between behaving within the confines of society’s gender roles and depicting traits of the “New Woman.” The following sentence after Lucy’s initial question displays Lucy’s awareness of utilizing her femininity to her advantage. She questions her intentions for ridiculing a “great-hearted, true gentleman” highlighting Lucy’s divided mindset when it comes to men (Stoker 67). She acknowledges a level of superiority by making fun of the suitor, but she also stops herself and compliments him. She does not allow herself to go “too far” in questioning gender roles and regresses to her expected “womanly” behavior where she must be beneath men.

Lucy hints at ideas of polyamorous love as a solution to multiple proposals. Lucy questions, “Why can’t they let a girl marry three men, or as many as want her, and save all this trouble? But this is heresy, and I must not say it” (Stoker 67). An open marriage would not have been perceived in a positive light as it would allude to notions of promiscuity or perversion. Lucy understands this question is not appropriate for a woman to hold as it goes against the values of obedience, purity, and chastity. She must not say it aloud, but she is allowed to gossip about it within the confines of epistolography. Her suitor, Dr. Seward, repeatedly addresses Lucy as a little girl highlighting the gender hierarchy imposed while simultaneously belittling her character. Dr. Seward makes it clear that her rejection has not shamed or crushed him, instead, he goes out of his way to guilt Lucy into giving him a goodbye kiss. He plays the gentlemanly role well in complimenting his rival for having successfully won Lucy’s heart. He does it so well that Lucy feels guilty and questions herself for behaving like a flirt. Dr. Sewards asks “Won’t you give me one kiss? It’ll be something to keep off the darkness now and then,” insinuating he is worthy of recompense for her rejection (Stoker 67). Guilting Lucy into a sexual act is not consent and further reiterates the power men hold over women to satisfy their egos.

Although Lucy displays examples of behaving in accord with gender norms, however, her exceptional beauty affords her the privilege to, at the very least, write about men in a degrading manner. Letter writing allows Lucy and Mina to be honest about their feelings about men and encourages questioning gender roles.