Category: Origins

There are two inscriptions in Baedeker’s Great Britain. One reads, “EM Biddle, July 6, 1907.” The other, “Aug 1956 EM Biddle – Gift.” The library sticker behind the front cover of the Baedeker reads, “Presented by Edward M. Biddle.”

However, a closer look on the first inscription casts some doubt. Is that “M” really an M, or is it actually a “W”? The other Ms are clearly distinguished from the other letters. Could this mean that the original owner of this Baedeker’s was a different Biddle than the one who gifted it to the Dickinson Archives?

To try and find answers, I asked the archivists for some help in tracking down the possible Biddles. We found a file on one Edward Macfunn Biddle. It included an entry for him in the Dickinson Alumni catalogue; apparently, he was at Dickinson from 1901-1904, after which he attended Yale. There is also a list of Biddle alumni at the college, which included no less than three E.M. Biddles, and one E.W. Biddle.

There is also an article on Edward M. Biddle in the file, written for The Dickinson Alumnus. According to this excerpt, his father was E.W. Biddle, a Judge and former president of the Dickinson Board of Trustees. Edward M. became a legal adviser and was an active member of his community. The most important part of this excerpt reads: “As a traveler he has been in Europe a number of times, has visited South America, as well as extended regions of the United States.” This of course indicates a possible use or ownership of this Baedeker’s guidebook, a fact exacerbated by its publication in 1906, soon after his graduation from Yale. This largely eliminates the possibility of the first inscription in the guidebook being “E.W. Biddle” as opposed to the initially-assumed “E.M. Biddle”… except that E.W. was alive until 1931, when he died unexpectedly at 79. According to the Dickinson College Archives, E.W. was practicing law until 1895, at which point he became the president judge in the Cumberland County Court of Common Pleas. I have already noted the condition of my copy of Baedeker’s Great Britain – it has no annotations or inscriptions within it beyond the two at the beginning of the book, and there is very little wear beyond aging. The only clear indication of use is the broken bookmark, which could be because of age but also because of repetitive use. It is entirely possible to consider that E.W. purchased this book as a way to experience some form of travel from the comfort of his home. He also could have purchased the book as a gift for his son E.M. for graduating from Yale, which he did in 1906, and we know that he travelled. Uncertainty abounds.

The other two Biddles in the directory, both ambiguously labelled only “Biddle, Edward M.” could be ruled out, as they graduated from Dickinson in 1886 and 1852; but they might have purchased the guidebook as another form of stationary travel. Although this Baedeker’s was donated by the E.M. Biddle who graduated in 1904, the Biddle family legacy is present enough in Dickinson college that E.M. could have inherited this book from another family member and then just donated it to the archives.

Because E.M. donated this Baedeker to the archives, I thought that it might be useful to see what other books he might have donated. If these books were also travel books or possessed handwriting that could distinguish the handwriting in the initial inscription of this book, it could help in getting a concrete answer about who owned and read this book. I was able to concretely discover three other books, one of which is Baedeker’s Berlin guidebook, a book about the U.S. Senate called Sketches of Debate in the First Senate of the United States, in 1789-90-91 by William Maclay, and another called The Book of the Homeless by Edith Wharton. This could indicate his ownership over the guidebooks, but we are in the same dilemma as when we started: were these previously owned by a different Biddle?

I also found that in the same year E.M. donated these books to the college, Dickinson purchased the “Biddle House,” which is now used by the Registrar’s Office and the Career Center. This generates some questions – why sell the house but not the books? Perhaps because the Biddle family was moving away; perhaps they needed some money but couldn’t be bothered to as for money over books. The mystery of the “E. Biddle” written in this book is tentatively solved, but unless one could find the receipt of purchase for this Baedeker’s the ambiguity lives on.

Works Cited:

Dickinson College Archives on Edward W. Biddle

https://archives.dickinson.edu/people/edward-w-biddle-1852-1931

Dickinson College Archives on Edward M. Biddle

https://archives.dickinson.edu/image-archive/edward-macfunn-biddle-1933

Dickinson College Archives on the Biddle House

https://archives.dickinson.edu/image-archive/biddle-house-c1900

Fig. 1 Edwin E. Willoughby, courtesy of the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation

Since John Lichfield first printed George Sandys’ Ovid’s Metamorphoses Englished, Mythologiz’d, and Represented in Figures in 1632, the copy held within the Dickinson College Archives & Special Collections has travelled across oceans, finding its way to the United States at some unknown time after its publication in Oxford. As a travel writer who spent time in the Virginia colonies in the 1620s, Sandys may have had hopes that his work would make its way to the Americas, but he likely never imagined it would end up at a small liberal arts college in Pennsylvania after being owned by an alumnus who happened to be the Chief Bibliographer of the Folger Shakespeare Library.

Based on the book’s front matter, Sandys envisioned an elite, well-read audience for his work. With both a dedication and panegyric addressed to King Charles I and an address to Queen Henrietta Maria, Sandys positioned his work as worthy of the very top of English society. As a translation of a classic work, with countless other references to different myths peppered throughout, the book also assumes a learned audience with some degree of knowledge of the classics. It is unlikely that anyone without prior knowledge of Ovid and his works would be inclined to pick up Sandys’ translation. Readers would not be familiar with the text itself unless they were familiar with Metamorphosis and its myths, whether that be in Latin or in English. 

Fig. 2 The bookplate bearing Dr. Willoughby’s name.

In regards to education level, Ovid’s Metamorphoses Englished, Mythologiz’d, and Represented in Figures reached its intended audience in its last owner, Edwin E. Willoughby, before arriving at Dickinson College. The history of this book’s ownership in England is unknown; the name “Thomas Chadwick” appears on the title page alongside the year 1780, but this inscription does not indicate where Mr. Chadwick lived. He could have been from England, or he could have lived in the American colonies amidst the American Revolutionary War. As there is no information on him, we likely will never know. But we know for certain that this copy must have been in the United States by October of 1959, when Edwin E. Willoughby passed away with Ovid’s Metamorphoses in his possession. Dr. Willoughby was the Chief Bibliographer of the Folger Shakespeare Library from 1935-1958 and focused his scholarship on the print history of Shakespeare’s work and the history of the King James Bible (“Edwin Eliott Willoughby (1899-1959) | Dickinson College”). The bookplate pasted into the cover of Ovid’s Metamorphoses identifies this particular book as part of the gift Dr. Willoughby’s sister, Dr. Frances Willoughby, made to Dickinson in memory of her brother (See Figure 2).

During his career, Dr. Willoughby acquired many rare books for his own personal collection and sent a number to the library at his alma mater, Dickinson College. In their file on Dr. Willoughby, the Archives possesses multiple memos from college librarians thanking Dr. Willoughby for gifting copies of various works. On one occasion, while working as the Chief Bibliographer at the Folger Shakespeare Library, he gifted the college a 1608 “Black letter” edition of the Geneva Bible and c. 1611-1613 copy of the “Great She” Bible (See Figures 3 and 4). The large gift Frances Willoughby made in honor of her brother in 1960 was the last in a long series of philanthropic donations started by Dr. Willoughby himself decades prior. 

Fig. 3 The notecard recording Dr. Willoughby’s gift of a Geneva Bible.

Fig. 4 The notecard recording Dr. Willoughby’s gift of a “Great She” Bible

Notably, there are no records of Frances Willoughby donating this particular edition, the 1632 Ovid’s Metamorphoses Englished, Mythologiz’d, and Represented in Figures, in any of Dickinson’s archival records. There are a few documents that mention Ovid’s Metamorphoses by name as part of the Willoughby gift, but they all designate it as the 1626 edition (See Figure 5). The Dickinson College Archives & Special Collections does not own the 1626 edition of Sandys’ translation, which I confirmed by checking the catalog of the archives’ physical holdings. This left me with two possible explanations to this discrepancy; one was that at some point Dickinson did own a 1626 edition, and that acquisition was highlighted in the documentation, but was excised from the archives in the years since. The alternative is that either Dr. Frances Willoughby or the librarians cataloging the gift mistook this 1632 edition of the text for the 1626 edition and recorded it incorrectly. I consulted with our archivists, Jim Gerencser and Malinda Triller-Doran, and the three of us were in agreement that the latter explanation was far more likely. Had a 1626 edition of Sandys’ Ovid’s Metamorphoses been excised, it would have been under Jim’s direction, and he explained that he would have never gotten rid of a rare book that was part of the Willoughby collection. 

Fig. 5 Document mentioning Sandys’ 1626 translation of Ovid’s Metamorphoses as part of the collection donated to the Dickinson College Library in 1960.

Jim’s insight meant that a copy of the 1626 edition likely never existed in the Dickinson College Archives, so at some point in the donation and cataloging process, someone made an error. Had it been simply the wrong year that was recorded, one might not dwell too long on it, as human error is common and there were no computers in 1960 to keep the streamlined catalogs that the archives have today. But it was more than just the year—all archival documents record the full information for the 1626 edition, which include the publisher and location of publication (William Stansby, London) and the complete title, Ovid’s Metamorphoses English’d. John Lichfield published the 1632 edition in Oxford and it had a much longer title which signified its status as an illustrated translation. Furthermore, this information is all located on the title page of the text. One would only have to open the book to realize that the copy in the archives’ possession was the 1632 illustrated edition, not Sandys’ 1626 translation. I cannot account for this mistake, nor can Jim and Malinda, but it demonstrates the incredible responsibility book collectors, conservationists, archivists, and librarians have when it comes to the texts they preside over. Making mistakes is human, and easy, but misrecorded information can also affect the work and research of future students and scholars. Fortunately, the online catalog correctly lists the 1632 edition as the version that Dickinson College holds in the archives.

Works Cited

“Edwin Eliott Willoughby (1899-1959) | Dickinson College.” Dickinson.edu, 2019, archives.dickinson.edu/people/edwin-eliott-willoughby-1899-1959. Accessed 1 Dec. 2024.

Gerencser, Jim and Malinda Triller-Doran. Personal Interview. 2 December 2024. 

How might the history of a publisher bring a book into context—even with no indication of who actually edited it? A Selection of One Hundred and Forty of the Most Favourite English, Scotch, Irish, and American Songs was published by the press of “A. Loudon,” as according to its title page. Archibald Loudon’s deep roots in Carlisle, PA provide a clear outline of his cultural and publishing interests. They even strongly suggest an answer to the mystery of whether he himself edited A Selection, or if he republished the whole collection. One of the few things we can attempt to trace about the book are Loudon’s reasons for publishing it, beginning with the context surrounding his career.

Books were Loudon’s “life-long pursuit” according to historian Eric Fretz. Loudon’s frantic history of inserting himself into early Carlisle’s publishing world reflects this passion: even before the opening of his own publishing press, he participated in the book-loving community of the town. He engaged in book-binding, sold stationary, and was established postmaster of Carlisle in 1802 (Fretz 62). His duties as postmaster were not unimportant tasks, and impacted the spread of information locally. The management of post caused political opinion impact, influenced monetary management, and the title itself indicated a position of high governmental trust. Hungry for more, he officially began his publishing career through a friend: George Kline, who printed Loudon’s publications prior to the opening of Loudon’s press in 1804 (Fretz 62). As for A Selection, it was published by Loudon’s own press in 1806, fresh off the excitement of its opening two years prior.

Loudon’s devotion to the literature-world of Carlisle was so intense that despite the small magnitude of his success as a publisher, more than one historian (including Eric Fretz and William A. Hunter) considers him one of the most important printers of early Carlisle. Fretz characterizes Loudon as a “disseminator of early American culture” (Fretz 61), justifying this title by describing his varied publishing interests and role as postmaster. Loudon did, in fact, intend to spread his publications as far as possible, and to do so by appealing to the most popular subjects of the time. Loudon was known to be “keen as to social trends” (Fretz 64), and seemed to attempt to balance these wider social trends with local interests. He spent much of his effort editing his most well-known publications, a series of “true accounts” taken from a number of American-colonial interviewees regarding their encounters with local indigenous American populations. American “frontier” stories were a consistent interest of Loudon’s and of the larger Pennsylvania populace at the time, too: stories of white settlers waging war against Native Americans spread rapidly (Fretz 64). His enthusiasm for spreading local stories continued through the establishment of his own paper, The Cumberland Register, from 1805-1813 (Hunter). But Loudon was also infatuated with the world of art, especially theater. He published a significant number of plays, was a well-known enjoyer of music, and even published the work of a little-known Cumberland County poet, Isabella Oliver (Fretz 62). Loudon was ardent, and his publications from his own press were both edited and printed by him. Considering all this interest in music and theater, A Selection joins the ranks of a large number of artistic publications that Loudon dedicated time to during his career, bearing the obvious mark of his press:

The image above displays the book imprint of A Selection, “Whitehall,” used as Loudon’s imprint from 1805-1809 (Schaumann). The nickname refers to the white walls of Loudon’s press, formerly located at 28 High Street. In fact, his old paper press from the building was obtained by the Cumberland County Historical Society—it hasn’t moved very far! It stands in the museum as a reminder of the early impact of Loudon’s press, and I’ve included an image of it for reference. (For context, the paper press would’ve been used to make paper sheets more even, flat, and dry by pressing. The plaque next to the press includes these details.) The “Whitehall” imprint, displayed clearly in A Selection’s front page, is another bold reminder of Loudon’s press and the pride he took in it.

Another point of pride for Loudon was his ancestry. From what I can tell, it has influenced nearly all of his publication interests, A Selection included due to its inclusion of Scottish and Irish songs in its compilation. In fact, though there is no indication of which songs are of which cultural origin, Eric Fretz identifies the majority as Scottish (63). Loudon’s parents were Scottish immigrants, and moved to America in 1754 (Hunter). Most families in Carlisle during its early history as a town were made up at least in part of Scottish or Irish folks who immigrated to British colonial America. Another significant part of A Selection is American “frontier” songs, ones discussing the founding fathers, military power, and colonization, especially George Washington (Fretz 63). These songs accurately showcase Loudon’s blatant “pioneering” interests (Hunter), and correlate with his most popular publications of stories of war with Indigenous Americans. In fact, Loudon’s family has a history of violent conflict with local Native American populations, attempting first to settle on Indigenous land before relocating, causing Loudon to eventually settle in Cumberland County (Hunter). William A. Hunter notably skims swiftly past the conflict between Loudon’s family and local Indigenous peoples, choosing to focus on how it impacted his future edited story collection. However, there is far more substance to this direct link, including his consistent interest in popular “frontier” stories, his dedication to “disseminating” Scottish/Irish-American colonial stories, and the American songs included in A Selection.

Interestingly, through a Cumberland County Historical Society article on Loudon, I’ve been able to find a portrait of him, as seen above. He appears quite stoic, his expression neutral and focused and his dress professional. He’s perhaps distant, both in his place in the larger space of the portrait and in the way he faces the side, not the front, and does not look at the viewer. There aren’t any extra objects, colors, or lighting included in the portrait, leaving all the focus on Loudon and his impression. From my research, the portrait seems to be an accurate depiction of his hunger for himself and his business to be seen and successful, and this intensity and focus comes across. The portrait, though unrelated to A Selection, makes an interesting addition to supplement Loudon’s familial background, career, and known character.

With those three attributes above for context, it becomes clear why Loudon would take interest in publishing A Selection. But the mystery remains of whether Loudon reprinted the compilation entirely, or edited the selection himself, something that Eric Fretz only touches on briefly as a question (63). To me, however, answering this question is vital to my thinking about my project—so I’ll offer a hypothesis with the above evidence I’ve gathered. Due to Loudon’s personal connections with the cultural origins and topics of the songs included in A Selection, I believe he had some hand in editing the collection. The subject of the compiled songs align with Loudon’s publication history, and with his interest in art and music. This would imply that the “most favourite” songs were Loudon’s own “most favourite,” adding personality and clarity to the book’s title. After all, why would the songs not be some of Loudon’s “most favourite” if he took pride in colonial expansion and his Scottish ancestry?

The main issue with this answer is that Scottish and Irish immigrants made up the majority population of Carlisle. It isn’t impossible that the compilation in its entirety could have existed prior to A Selection’s publication, and suited the interests of another editor or publisher. However, since I am unable to find proof of its existence prior to Loudon’s publication (as are the historians discussing early Carlisle publications), I’ve settled largely into my previous theory. If nothing else, it is a fictitious story that ties Loudon’s history and this book’s publication together in a neat and well-researched bow.

Bibliography:

A Selection of One Hundred and Forty of the Most Favourite English, Scotch, Irish, and American Songs. 1806. SC 398 87 S698.

Dickinson College Archives & Special Collections.

Fretz, Eric. “Archibald Loudon of Carlisle: Disseminator of Early American Culture.” Cumberland County History, vol. VII, no. 2., pp.

61-67. Cumberland County Historical Society.

Hunter, William A. “Archibald Loudon, Pioneer Historian.”1962. C H H947a. Cumberland County Historical Society.

Schaumann, Merri Lou. “Archibald Loudon (1754-1840).” Elizabeth V. and George F. Gardner Library, Cumberland County

Historical Society, gardnerlibrary.org/encyclopedia/archibald-loudon-1754-1840.

Image Credits:

Oil on canvas of Archibald Loudon, painted in 1807 by Cezeron (1952.005.001).

https://gardnerlibrary.org/encyclopedia/archibald-loudon-1754-1840.

Remainder of images taken by iPhone, by author.

The Token and Atlantic Souvenir: An Offering for Christmas and the New Years is a gift book featuring a collection of prose, poetry, and illustrations. Gift books, unlike regular books, catered primarily to women and young girls, emphasizing aesthetic appeal over content. These books featured elaborate bindings and luxurious materials, serving as decorative objects meant for display rather than reading. The Token and Atlantic Souvenir embodies the gift book tradition, featuring works from renowned writers like Henry Longfellow, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Harriet Beecher Stowe, and Samuel Griswold Goodrich. Though many writers contributed to the book, these four are the most well-known.  

Figure 1: Contents

Henry Longfellow, one of the most famous contributors, was a celebrated American poet, known for works such as “Paul Revere’s Ride,” The Song of Hiawatha, and Evangeline. Longfellow was a member of the Fireside Poets, a group cherished in New England for their focus on themes of mortality and domesticity. His poem “The Two Locks of Hair” is featured in The Token and Atlantic Souvenir.  

Figure 2: The Two Locks of Hair

Another prominent contributor, Harriet Beecher Stowe, is best known for her abolitionist novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin. Stowe was a prolific author and social justice advocate who wrote 30 books and many articles and letters. Her poem “The Yankee Girl” is included in The Token and Atlantic Souvenir. 

Nathaniel Hawthorne, known for his novels The Scarlet Letter and The House of the Seven Gables, also has several works featured in the gift book. He is best known for his works on history, morality, and religion. Hawthorne is one of the only writers in The Token… with multiple works featured. This shows his standing in 19th-century American literature; his works brought prestige to the gift book. His works “The Shaker Bridal,” “Night Sketches, Beneath an Umbrella,” and “Endicott and the Red Cross” are all included in the gift book.  

Samuel Griswold Goodrich, who edited the annual under his pseudonym Peter Parley, included his own essay “Sketches from a Student’s Window.” Due to his work as the editor of The Token…, many people accept him as the author of the book. His efforts played a pivotal role in shaping the content of the gift book, curating works that appealed to the cultural beliefs of the time.  

 Beyond the literary contributions, the craftsmanship of the book further elevates its status. The intricate binding, high-quality parchment, and detailed engravings all showcase the gift book’s intended purpose: to be a visual and tactile display piece. The Token… likely used parchment rather than vellum or sheepskin for its binding. Parchment is smooth, with a consistent texture on either side, while animal skin has a side with hair remnants. The uniformity of the parchment enhanced the book’s elegance. The engraved cloth cover added another layer of sophistication. The New York company Rawdon, Wright, Hatch, and Smillie engraved the intricate artwork on the covers. The paper quality also set gift books apart from regular publications; J.M. and L. Hollingsworth are the papermakers for the book. Benjamin Bradley, one of Boston’s most skilled bookbinders, ensured that the book’s construction matched its artistic design.  

Figure 3: Front Cover

Figure 4: Book Spine

Several contributors also played key roles in the production of The Token and Atlantic Souvenir, reflecting the collaborative nature of gift books. Samuel N. Dickinson, a prominent Boston printer, was a key contributor to the project. His work earned praise for its precision and clarity, and his work helped popularize the Scotch Roman typeface in the United States. David H. Williams, the primary publisher, oversaw the Boston editions of The Token and Atlantic Souvenir. To expand the book’s reach, Williams collaborated with other publishers across the United States, as well as in England and France. These publishers were included on the title page in the book, showing readers the prestige and reach that the book had; it indicated that it was not simply a local publication, but rather popular worldwide. Many publishers allowed the book to gain popularity worldwide.  

Figure 5: List of Publishers

The annual series, published from 1829 to 1842, featured new content every year, showcasing different authors and artistic styles. The variations between editions reflected changes in literary trends and advancements in printing technology. Gift books bridged the gap between art, literature, and commerce in the 19th-century. They were luxury items that reflected one’s social status, particularly that of the gift giver. The intricate designs and sophisticated content distinguished them from regular books. Gift books catered to an audience that valued aesthetic beauty and intellect, making them prized possessions in the 1800s. Through their exquisite design and curated content, gift books offered more than entertainment; they reflected the cultural and social beliefs of the time.  

Figure 6: Ornate Title Page

Works Consulted

“Details For: The Token and Atlantic Souvenir, : An Offering for Christmas and the New Year. › Library Company of Philadelphia Catalog.” Kohacatalog.com, 2024, librarycompany.kohacatalog.com/cgi-bin/koha/opac-detail.pl?biblionumber=277999.  

Hurley, Natasha. “Typee and the Making of Adult Innocence.” Studies in American Fiction, vol. 46, no. 1, Mar. 2019, pp. 31–54. EBSCOhost, research.ebsco.com/linkprocessor/plink?id=0b5e2281-7d17-3175-bf1d-5feb5f019117.  

McGettigan, Katie. “Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and the Transatlantic Materials of American Literature.” American Literature: A Journal of Literary History, Criticism, and Bibliography, vol. 89, no. 4, Dec. 2017, pp. 727–59. EBSCOhost, https://doi-org.dickinson.idm.oclc.org/10.1215/00029831-4257835.  

“Rare Gift Books.” Brandeis.edu, 2024, www.brandeis.edu/library/archives/essays/special-collections/rare-gift-book.html.  

“Reviews of the Token for 1842.” Merrycoz.org, 2024, www.merrycoz.org/voices/token/reviews/1842.xhtml.  

Silver, Rollo G. “Flash of the Comet: The Typographical Career of Samuel N. Dickinson.” Studies in Bibliography, vol. 31, 1978, pp. 68–89. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/40371675  

URAKOVA, ALEXANDRA. “Hawthorne’s Gifts: Re-Reading ‘Alice Doane’s Appeal’ and ‘The Great Carbuncle’ in The Token.” The New England Quarterly, vol. 89, no. 4, 2016, pp. 587–613. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26405815 

    French Cookery The Modern Cook, by Charles Elme Francatelli, was an exceedingly influential cookbook of its time. I am studying a copy of the second edition for a class at Dickinson College (Figure 1). For more information about the specific copy I am studying, read my first blog post. This blog will primarily focus on the author’s backstory and the creation of this book.

     Published in 1846, French Cookery took off, and its cultural and influential success led Francatelli to publish more cookbooks for different audiences (Habit, 2019). Since this book was published nearly 200 years ago, information on its origins is minimal. The processes are assumed to be well-known, as the era’s typical printing and publishing process is well-known.

     Charles Elme Francatelli was an accomplished chef thanks to his education, work experiences, and popular cookbooks. He was born in Italy and was the first in his family to move to France. He was educated at the Parisian College of Cooking (Flantzer, 2024). After graduating, he moved to England, where his career took off. He worked at many different clubs and typically worked for nobles and aristocrats at Fashionable Crockfords and The Reform Club (Bishop, 2021). These clubs were only accessible to the wealthy. He managed and was the head chef for these clubs. His mentor (who is accredited on the title page), Antonin Caramel, is accredited for influencing French Haute Cuisine, which is an elegant type of cooking still popular today (Myhrvold, 2019). Haute Cuisine (high cooking) refers to food that is typically seen in high-end restaurants. This style includes only the highest quality ingredients (Escoffier School of Culinary Arts, 2022). Ratatouille, Quiche, and Crème Brulé are common French Haute dishes. Francatelli’s main claim to fame was his short stint working for Queen Victoria. For two years before publishing his first book, he was the head chef for the queen. He slightly brags about this job on the title page of this book. Francatelli was such an icon of his time that in the TV show Victoria (2016), he was included as a character working for Queen Victoria (Habit, 2019). His main influence on the culinary world was popularizing the concept of two-course meals. Previous to his influence, Nobles would have extravagant meals, typically three or four courses with many options for each course. He did this through his recipes and his cookbooks. He made it the norm to have an entrée and a sweeter second dish for lunch as well as dinner (Fisher,1998). His influence is still seen today as the two-course meal is still typical for a home-cooked meal.

      Francatelli published his first cookbook, French Cookery, in 1846. Both the first and the second edition were published in the same year. I couldn’t find any information about his inspiration to publish a cookbook. French Cookery took off and had a total of 29 different editions. The different editions were published by a variety of different publishers. There was a distinct London edition that most likely only varied in what specific ingredients were being used. I could not find any information on the London edition; however, the typical variance for London editions was the ingredients. These changes were made to make cooking convenient for people as the availability of ingredients varied from America to Europe. Lea and Blanchard in Philadelphia printed this specific version of French Cookery, The Modern Cook, which is the second edition of the book; this copy is not the London edition. Lea and Blanchard, which was a part of the Carey Publishing House (the largest publisher in America), was one of the most popular publishing houses in Philadelphia in the 19^th century (Historical Society of Pennsylvania, 2008). Lea and Blanchard published many popular books at the time; some of the titles include Oliver Twist, The Pathfinder, Peter Pilgrim, and The Pioneers. At the time, French Cookery was included in these iconic titles. I could find no information about the printer of this book.

      After the success of Francatelli’s first cookbook, he went on to publish three more cookbooks targeting different demographics (Bishop, 2021). The first book was mainly for upper-class families or upper-class establishments. This book’s preface talked about how some of the ingredients are very expensive and how these recipes could be wasteful if not cooked properly; showing that these recipes aren’t accessible for lower class people. His second book, A Plain Cookery Book For The Working Class, was published in 1852 and was intended as a more practical cookbook with cheaper recipes that had more attainable ingredients. His third book, The Cooks Guide and Housekeepers and Butlers Assistants, published in 1861, included the most attainable recipes through cheaper and more common ingredients. His last book, Royal English and Foreign Confectionery Book, was published in 1862 and had less of an intended audience and had more specific recipes for confectionery foods (The Cooks Guide, 2005). All of Francatelli’s books were very successful (as they all went through many editions), and with each book, he made cooking increasingly more accessible for all classes by creating recipes that included easier-to-find and cheaper ingredients.

      The specific copy of French Cookery, The Modern Cook, that I am studying was printed on an early version of wood pulp paper. This paper doesn’t include a lot of chemicals; these would become the standard later in printing. Wood pulp paper became popularized in the 1850’s. As it became more common, the paper became more acidic. The paper is flimsier, more brittle, weaker, and more susceptible to tearing than non-acidic wood pulp. Now newspapers are printed on this acidic wood pulp paper. This paper is very sturdy and strong and shows that the chemicals hadn’t been added to the wood pulp paper yet. Wood pulp paper is more susceptible to foxing, which is present on every page of the book, even without acid, the paper foxes (Figure 2). This helped decern the paper material. This book is cloth-bound and was likely bound before distribution over a cardboard panel. This book was more affordable than a book bound with leather.

      The gift plate includes a lot of information about where this specific copy came from. The gift plate suggests the owner who donated this book lived in Carlisle, Pennsylvania (Figure 3). There were multiple owners of this book. I believe Mrs. B. Stilingfleck was the original owner of this copy; her signature was included on the title page. However, the person who donated the book was Mr. A. Gram. This book was donated in 1851, only five years after its publication. In those five years, this copy of French Cookery was owned and used by Mrs. B. Stilingfleck and then somehow ended up in Mr. Gram’s possession.

Works Cited

Bishop, Amy. “The Booker T. Washington-W.E.B. Du Bois Debate.” Cardinal Tales Highlights from 2018, Iowa State University Digital Press, 7 July 2021, iastate.pressbooks.pub/cardinaltales1/chapter/rare-book-highlights-.

“Charles Elme Francatelli.” Charles Elme Francatelli (1805-1876) Chief Cook to Her Majesty the Queen, www.thecooksguide.com/articles/francatelli.html.

Collection 227B – Lea & Febiger, hsp.org/sites/default/files/legacy_files/migrated/findingaid227bleaandfebiger.pdf.

“Food: The Arts (Fine and Culinary) of 19th Century America.” The New York Times, 18 Jan. 1998, archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/98/01/18/home/fisher-19th.html.

“Grande Cuisine: References & Edit History.” Encyclopædia Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., www.britannica.com/topic/grande-cuisine/additional-info#history.

Habit, | By Franklin. “In the Kitchen with Francatelli, Part One.” Modern Daily Knitting iCal, Modern Daily Knitting, 15 Jan. 2020, www.moderndailyknitting.com/community/in-the-kitchen-with-francatelli-part-one/.

Larson, Sarah. “What Is Haute Cuisine?” Escoffier Online, Escoffier, 8 June 2022, www.escoffieronline.com/what-is-haute-cuisine/.

Susan, and Susan. “Charles Elmé Francatelli, Maitre d’hôtel and Chief Cook in Ordinary to Queen Victoria.” Unofficial Royalty, 9 Aug. 2024, www.unofficialroyalty.com/charles-elme-francatelli/.

The Secrets of . . . Who?

The different people who played a role in The Secrets of Alexis

1559 Italian Cover Page; Translation: Of the Secrets of the Reverend Master Alexis of Piemonte; The First Part Divided in Six Books; In Milan

Who is the “Reverend Master Alexis of Piemont” whose secrets became so popular in the 16^th and 17^th centuries?

I am currently researching a 1615 English edition of The Secrets of Alexis (original Italian: De’ Secreti del Reverendo Donno Alessio Piemontese published 1555). It is a book of remedies and recipies for everything from dyes to face cleansers to medicines. For more on the book itself please see the post before: The Secrets of Alexis.

Author:

Now, finding the author of a book should be fairly simple, especially in a book where the author’s name is in the title, right? Sadly, no. Most catalouges (including my school’s) accredit Girolamo Ruscelli. This is based on a similar alchemy book he wrote, published a year after his death in 1567 called Secreti Nuovi (New Secrets). It claims to be The Secrets of Alexis’ sequel, calling Alessio Piemontese Ruscelli’s psuedonym (Bela 58). Francesco Sansovino, a friend of Ruscelli’s and who published New Secrets on his behalf, attests to Ruscelli’s authorship in his preface to New Secrets (Eamon & Phaheau 329). Battaglie (published 1582) by Hieronimo Mutio also calls Piemontese Ruscelli’s pseudonym in a passing comment (Bela 58-59).

Excerpt from Battaglie (Muzio, 63) English: “Perhaps he made this metamorphosis through the power of his alchemy, whence was born the book published under the name of Don Alexis of Piedmont” (Bela, 59)

“Portrait” of Ruscelli from Theatrum Virorum Eruditione Clarorum by Paul Freher (1688, p. 1464) (Bela)

Ruscelli (1500-1566) was a humanist cartographer, writer, and “polymath” (“Map”). His works, especially the maps, were impressive, especially so for the time, including commentaries, annotations, and translations as well as collections of maps, though none garnered near the attention The Secrets of Alexis had (Eamon & Phaheau 329). His most notable contribution to cartography was the use of copper plates in place of wood, allowing for more detailed maps (“Map”). In the 1540s, living in Naples, Ruscelli was a member of the Accademia Segreta (Eamon & Phaheau 330). This society studied alchemy, testing and experimenting with the remedies that comprise The Secrets (333).

Zbigniew Bela, however, wrote a passionate piece arguing that The Secrets was actually written by a man named Alessio Piemontese (Bela 63). Alas, Piemontese is an even more obscure figure than Ruscelli, making any real argument for his authorship immensely difficult. Piemontese (est. 147o-1550) was a medic and alchemist, and in 1557, published a book of secrets in Italian (Ibid.). On page 22 verso of The Secrets, a recipe says that the water was given to him (the author) by Girolamo Ruscelli in Bologna in 1543. This suggests that Ruscelli is either sneakily inserting his name into the book by pretending to meet himself, or in fact, Piemontese was the author and Ruscelli assisted in some way or inspired some of the recipes (Bela 60).

Same anecdote about Ruscelli in the 1558 Italian edition

In the “To the Reader,” Alessio¹ talks about his knowledge of many languages and his “singular pleasure in philosophy, and in the secrets of Nature,” adding that he travelled the world for “seven and twenty years.” He gathered his “secrets” from other learned men, noble men, “poor women, artifacers, pesants, and all sorts of men.” When Alessio was “fourscore and two year and seven months” he met a sick man, suffering from an inability to urinate. Out of his “vain glory” and fears that the physician might use his “secrets” for selfish purposes, Alessio refused share the “secrets,” and the physician, fearing others knowing he sought outside help, refused to allow Alessio to administer the medicine himself. When the man passed, Alessio was overcome with guilt, saying that he “desired to die” because he was a “murderer” for withholding his “secrets.” To help alleviate some of this guilt, he was “determined to communicate” his recipes to the public, hence this book. He assures his readers of his trustworthiness by way of his age, this story, and the promise that the recipes are “true and experimented.”

Translators:

I couldn’t find much on Richard Androse, one of The Secrets’ translators, but I had more luck with the other, William Ward [Warde]. Ward (1534-1609) was a physician and translator and studied at Eton College and King’s College, Cambridge (Bayne & Wallis). He served as physician for both Queen Elizabeth I and King James I (Ibid.). He also translated several works from French to English, including The Secrets (Ibid.). It is likely from his expertise as a physician that he added recipes to the English edition as he translated it (Martins).

The Secrets of Alexis was printed in almost every western European language and in more than ninety editions by the end of the seventeenth century (Eamon & Phaheau 330). I found a number of digitized versions of the book (listed below).

1562 Edit.’s end of Epistle

The “To the Reader” appears to be in all the editions, including the Italian. The Epistle and dedication seem unique to English editions, likely written by Ward as the 1562 edition’s ends “Your humble servant, William Warde,” though the others are nameless. Some of these editions, for example the 1595 and 1615 editions, were the same material just varying aesthetically, though others have sections numbered differently, more or fewer sections, etc. The 1580 English and 1558 Italian both have a table of contents at the end, the 1562 English and 1559 Italian have a table of contents in the middle of the work. Most of the English editions (1562, 1580, 1595, 1615, and so on) were labeled “newly corrected and amended…” editions, used the same translations, and featured the same or very similar marginal notes. It’s hard to say just how much Ward added to the English, though, without knowing more than rudimentary Italian or having a first edition.

Printer:

William Stansby (1572 – 1638) printed this edition in London at Cross Keys printing house. He apprenticed there under John Windet from 1589 to 1597 and then continued working with him, becoming co-partner in 1609, just before Windet’s death in 1610 (Bland). Windet focused on long print runs of small godly books, but after his passing, Stansby worked on smaller print runs of larger works and introduced more variety to the material than Windet had (Ibid.). During this period, he printed works by “John Donne, Sir Walter Ralegh, William Camden, John Selden, Michael Drayton, [and] Sir Francis Bacon,” (Ibid.) and, most famously, Ben Jonson’s first folio in 1616 (Wienberg). Stansby frequently printed banned or frowned-upon materials and was even arrested in the early 1620s for a pamphlet on Ferdinand II succeeding to the crown of Bohemia (Bland). Despite the change in focus, Stansby continued to use Windet’s printer’s device as seen on the section title pages of The Secrets (Windet). Around 1624, Stansby calmed down substantially, printing longer runs of psalms once more (Bland).

1595 Edit. page 121

1615 Edit. page 121

1562 Edit.’s equivalent of page 121

Works Cited

Bayne, Ronald, and Patrick Wallis. “Ward [Warde], William (1534–1609), physician and translator.” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.January 03, 2008, Oxford University Press. https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-28709. Accessed 16 October 2024.

Bela, Zbigniew. “The Authorship of The Secrets of Alexis of Piemont” Kwartalnik Historii Nauki i Techniki, vol. 61, no. 1, 2016, pp. 52-73. ResearchGate, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/11726225/Who_really_is_an_author_of_Alexis_of_Piemont’s_secrets.

Bland, Mark. “Stansby, William (bap. 1572, d. 1638), printer and bookseller.” Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.  September 23, 2004. Oxford University Press. https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-64163. Accessed 16 Oct. 2024

Eamon, William and Françoise Paheau. “The Accademia Segreta of Girolamo Ruscelli: A Sixteenth-Century Italian Scientific Society.” Isis, vol. 75, no. 2, 1984, pp. 327–42. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/231830. Accessed 16 Oct. 2024.

“Map Maker Biography: Girolamo Ruscelli (1500 – 1566).” New World Cartographic, 6 Dec. 2021, https://nwcartographic.com/blogs/essays-articles/map-maker-biography-girolamo-ruscelli-1500-1566. Accessed 16 Oct. 2024

Martins, Julia. “The Secrets.” Cems KCL Blog, 14 July 2023. https://kingsearlymodern.co.uk/ key-texts/the-secrets. Accessed 21 November 2024

Muzio, Girolamo [Hieronimo Mutio]. Battaglie. Pietro Dusinelli, 1582, pp. 63, Internet Archive, https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_NQTWowCoq0sC/page/n153/mode /2up?view=theater.

Ruscelli, Girolamo. The Secrets of Alexis [Pseud.]: Containing Many Excellent Remedies against Divers Diseases, Wounds, and Other Accidents. With the Manner to Make Distillations, Parfumes … and Meltings … Newly corrected and Amended, and also Somewhat more enlarged in certaine places, Which wanted in the former editions., Printed by W. Stansby for R. Meighen, 1615. ²

Wienberg, Abbie and Elizabeth DeBold. “The Other First Folio.” Folger Shakespeare Library, July 2019, https://www.folger.edu/blogs/collation/the-other-first-folio/. Accessed 11 Oct. 2024

Windet, Micheal. “Adventures in Family Research.” The Stationers’ Company, 16 March 2021, https://www.stationers.org/news/archive-news/adventures-in-family-research. Accessed 12 October 2024

Work Consulted

“Archaeologica Medica: XXXII.-“The Secrets of Alexis.”.” British Medical Journal, vol. 2, 10 July 1897, 90-1.

De La Cruz-Cabanillas, Isabel. “The Secrets of Alexis in Glasgow University Library MS Ferguson 7.” SEDERI: Yearbook of the Spanish and Portuguese Society for English Renaissance Studies, vol. 30, Jan. 2020, pp. 29–46. EBSCOhost, https://doi.org/10.34136/sederi.2020.2.

Digitized Volumes and Collections:

Library of Congress Collection: https://lccn.loc.gov/49043523

Internet Archive: 1559 Italian Edition https://archive.org/details/BIUSante_pharma_res018694/mode/2up

Google Books: 1558 Italian Edition https://www.google.com/books/edition/De_Secreti_del_reverendo_donno_Alessio_P/wL6o6xxP7TEC?hl=en&gbpv=0

Early English Books via ProQuest:

1595 Edition https://www.proquest.com/docview/2240876695?accountid=10506&sourcetype=Books&imgSeq=1

1580 Edition

https://www.proquest.com/docview/2240906757?pq-origsite=primo&sourcetype=Books&imgSeq=1 

Footnotes:

1. I am using the name “Alessio” to refer to the author, not to make any statements as to who the author really is, just to use the name the “To the Reader” is signed, specifically the Italian form of the name because the “To the Reader” was the only of the front matter to exist in the original Italian, meaning these were the original author’s words, not a translator or English editor’s addition.
2. This is the citation for the edition of The Secrets I worked with based on the Dickinson College Library Catalogue, which, like many catalogues, accredits the book to Ruscelli.

The Frugal Housewife is a cookbook deeply rooted in history and activism, thanks to its author’s vocations. In addition to being a successful writer, Lydia Maria Child was a dedicated activist and abolitionist. Her published work An Appeal in Favor of that Class of Americans Called Africans was a first-of-its-kind essay that significantly impacted the perception of slavery in the United States at the time. Her other works include Hobomok: A Tale of Earlier Times, The Rebels, The Juvenile Miscellany, The Mother’s Book, and more. She mainly wrote children’s books and domestic manuals until her interest shifted to more political pursuits. After her work on An Appeal, she spent the rest of her life working towards abolishing slavery and raising awareness for the many inequalities in America. Although she was once revered in the Boston literary world, her stance on abolition left her ostracized – but that did not stop her from advocating for equality (The Poetry Foundation).  

While much of her work was based on abolitionist ideals, Child was also an advocate for feminist causes and women’s rights. In addition to writing the first comprehensive history of American Slavery, she also wrote the first comprehensive history of women. The Frugal Housewife is one of her works that based in feminist ideals. The Poetry Foundation states, “Directed at “middling” and lower-class women who could not afford servants, it was an early attempt to raise domesticity to a level of competence equal to that of other skilled trades (The Poetry Foundation).” Child’s works are mostly based in equality and advocacy, and The Frugal Housewife is not an outlier.  

Throughout her life, Child worked as both a writer and an editor.Since her career was strongly prevalent in the literary world, and the lack of information on the existence of a literary agent, I assume that Child did not have an agent. The front cover of the cookbook states, “Corrected and Arranged by the Author.” Child not only wrote her works, but she also edited and organized them herself.  

The first cookbook to take off in America was American Cookery, or, The Art of Dressing Viands, Fish, Poultry, and Vegetables, and the Best Modes of Making Puff-Pastes, Pies, Tarts, Puddings, Custards and Preserves, and All Kinds of Cakes, from the Imperial Plumb to Plain Cake by Amelia Simmons in 1796 (Virginia Tech University). Other cookbooks began to hit the shelves in the next two to three decades, including The Female Economist, or, A Plain System of Cookery: For the Use of Families: Containing Nearly Eight Hundred Valuable Receipts byMrs. Smith (Virginia Tech University) in 1810 (World Cat), The Experienced American Housekeeper: or, Domestic Cookery, Formed on Principles of Economy for the Use of Private Families by Eliza Rundell (Virginia Tech University) in 1823 (World Cat), Five Thousand Receipts in All the Useful and Domestic Arts, Constituting a Complete and Universal Practical Library, and Operative Cyclopaedia by Colin Mackenzie (Virginia Tech University) in 1829 (World Cat). It is evident based on the titles of these cookbooks, and Child’s own work, that most cookbooks published in the early nineteenth century were focused largely on economy and domesticity.  

Even with these other cookbooks published during that time, Child’s work stood out because of its ease of use, emphasis on remedies in addition to recipes, and frugality. The Frugal Housewife was a popular manual and had over 35 editions (Simon and Schuster). The cookbook’s popularity could be due to several reasons: not only was it the “first American cookbook to focus on economy in the kitchen and home (Andrews Mcmeel Publishing),” but it’s emphasis on self-reliance and frugality made it truly stand out (Andrews Mcmeel Publishing).  

This edition is the fourth edition, and the main reason for this edition’s printing is stated on the third page of the book: “The Author, having received a great many letters requesting the publication of “Hints to People of Moderate Fortune,” has deemed it proper to annex them to this little work; as both were written from the same motive, viz: an honest and independent wish to be useful.” There was such high demand for the additional chapter that Child acquiesced to the request by creating this fourth edition.

On the same page as this previous note from the author, there is also a note from a JNO. W. Davis, Clerk of District of Massachusetts, that states additional reasons for the printing of this book. It states that the book is in accordance with the act(s) stating an emphasis on learning and the importance of historical prints.

The book was originally printed in Boston, Massachusetts by publishers Carter, Hendee, and Babcock. There is not much known about these publishers, but from what I could find, they printed mainly children’s books and educational texts. On the back cover of this edition of The Frugal Housewife, there is a list of other books produced by these publishers, including The Children’s Week, The Young Emigrants, Scientific Tracts, and A Natural History of Insects. Carter and Hendee published over 150 volumes at their Corner Store, and they hired Babcock for only a year (the year this book was published – 1830-1831) (Boston University). Despite the success of The Frugal Housewife, Carter and Hendee were unable to stay in business and sold their publishing company the following year (1832) (Boston University). 

Information on the printer of this book is vague but based on another book published by Carter and Hendee, a printer by the name of Brattleboro Power Press Office could have been used. If not, it is possible that Carter and Hendee printed the books themselves, but this is speculative (Washington University). The paper itself has held up well structurally, although it is consistently stained on all pages. Based on the history of paper-making and the condition of the paper, I assume that it is made of rag-based materials, not wood-based. Wood-based paper was not invented until the 1840’s and was not widely used in America until over twenty years after that.  

The origins of The Frugal Housewife are deeply rooted in frugality, activism, and questioning the norms of the nineteenth-century. Child’s experience as both a successful writer and activist were crucial to the success of the cookbook. Knowing the impact activism had on the writing of the cookbook, and how its emphasis on frugality led to its fame, helps acknowledge the importance of the origins of The Frugal Housewife by Lydia Maria Child. 

Works Cited:

“Five Thousand Receipts in All the Useful and Domestic Arts : Constituting a Complete and Universal Practical Library, and Operative Cyclopaedia | WorldCat.org.” Worldcat.org, 2024, search.worldcat.org/title/Five-thousand-receipts-in-all-the-useful-and-domestic-arts-:-constituting-a-complete-and-universal-practical-library-and-operative-cyclopaedia/oclc/6478641. Accessed 21 Nov. 2024. 

History of Papermaking around the World, paper.gatech.edu/sites/default/files/2021-04/History of Papermaking Around the World.pdf. Accessed 17 Oct. 2024.  

“Looking Glass for the Mind: 350 Years of Books for Children.” Looking Glass for the Mind: 350 Years of Books for Children (an Online Exhibit), content.lib.washington.edu/exhibits/looking-glass/peter.html. Accessed 17 Oct. 2024.  

“Lydia Maria Child.” NATIONAL ABOLITION HALL OF FAME AND MUSEUM, www.nationalabolitionhalloffameandmuseum.org/lydia-maria-child.html. Accessed 17 Oct. 2024.  

“Lydia Maria Child.” Poetry Foundation, Poetry Foundation, www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/lydia-maria-child. Accessed 17 Oct. 2024.  

Newsome, Florence Wilson. “The Publishing and Literary Activities of the Predecessors of Ticknor and Fields, 1829-1849.” Boston University Libraries OpenBU, Boston University, 1 Jan. 1970, open.bu.edu/handle/2144/7541. 

“Research Guides: Food & Drink History Resources @Virginia Tech (and Beyond): Early American Cooking/Cookery (1796-1850).” Vt.edu, 2021, guides.lib.vt.edu/c.php?g=10336&p=5063149. Accessed 21 Nov. 2024. 

“The Experienced American Housekeeper, Or, Domestic Cookery, Formed on Principles of Economy for the Use of Private Families | WorldCat.org.” Worldcat.org, 2024, search.worldcat.org/title/15368470. Accessed 21 Nov. 2024. 

“The Female Economist, Or, a Plain System of Cookery : For the Use of Families : Containing Nearly Eight Hundred Valuable Receipts | WorldCat.org.” Worldcat.org, 2024, search.worldcat.org/title/77805720?oclcNum=77805720. Accessed 21 Nov. 2024. 

“The Frugal Housewife.” Andrews McMeel Publishing, 12 Oct. 2024, publishing.andrewsmcmeel.com/book/the-frugal-housewife/#:~:text=The%20charming%20collection%20of%20recipes,is%20relevant%20in%20modern%20times.  

“The Frugal Housewife.” Book by Lydia Maria Child | Official Publisher Page | Simon & Schuster, www.simonandschuster.com/books/The-Frugal-Housewife/Lydia-Maria-Child/9781449431709. Accessed 17 Oct. 2024. 

Several contributors compiled the tunes of “Gospel Hymns Combined,” Ira D. Sankey, James McGranahan, and George C. Stebbin, D.L Moody, Rev. Robert Lowry, and W. Howard Doane. However, the back cover of the booklet gives special consideration to one name—P.P. Bliss (figure 1).

Figure 1: Back cover of “Gospel Hymns Combined” displaying special consideration to the works of P.P. Bliss.

Born July 9, 1838, in a log cabin nestled within the central corridor of the Pennsylvanian Appalachians just outside of Clearfield County (Reese 1999). Philip Bliss earned recognition as one of the most famous American songwriters in history. So much so, that his peers, including Ira Sankey, respected and acknowledged his superior talent (Reese, 1999).  

Figure 2: Illustration of the 1876 Pacific Express Railway Accident which took the life of P.P. Bliss and 160 others.

His passion for writing Sunday school prayer melodies most likely stems from his early adoption of Christianity in his childhood as well as his work as a schoolteacher at the end of his formative years (Reese, 1999). At the age of twelve, Philip Bliss made his first public confession of Christ and joined the Baptist church. He later engaged in Methodist camp meetings and revival services (Reese, 1999). At the age of eighteen, Philip Bliss became a schoolteacher in New York where his musical talent would be recognized by a number of musical cliques (Reese, 1999). After only 4 years in New York, he returned to his home state and began tutoring pupils to supplement his income. After securing a spot and completing his stay in the Normal Academy of Music in New York, and moving to Chicago thereafter, his career eventually found great success, earning himself more than $90,000, or over three million dollars in today’s currency, nearly all of which was purportedly given to Evangelical charities (Reese, 1999). In Chicago, Bliss would mingle with other contributors of “Gospel Hymns Combined” such as D.L Moody and Ira Sankey, all of whom would regularly collaborate (Reese, 1999). 

Figure 3: The Philip Paul Bliss house, reopened as the Philip P. Bliss Gospel Songwriters Museum in 1965; added to the National Register of Historical Places in 1986.

Tragedy struck Philip’s life in 1876 (Reece, 1999), when a snowdrift upturned the Pacific Express train as it passed through Ashtabula, Ohio, launching hum and 160 others from the rails and down into the icy waters of the ravine 75 feet below (figure 2). Philip Bliss never got the chance to witness the printing of “Gospel Hymns Combined” in 1879, although the book is a testament to his lifelong commitment to gospel music considering the multiple acknowledgements to his work. Philip Bliss stands alone in the musical canon of American Gospel music. His home, now known as the Philip Paul Bliss House, opened as the Philip P. Bliss Gospel Songwriters Museum in 1965 and was added to the National Register of Historical Places in 1986 (figure 3) (Ross, 2009). Just as important as Philip Bliss were the publishers who made it possible to distribute his renowned and much enjoyed music, Biglow & Main of New York and Chicago and John Church & Co. of New York and Cincinnati. 

Figure 4: Formatting of Biglow & Main publishing’s first print, “Chapel Melodies,” 1868.

Founded in 1868 by Sylvester Main and his son Huberty Platt Main, Biglow & Main began as a publisher of hymnals in New York (National Endowment for the Humanities, 2024). Their first publication was “Chapel Melodies” in 1868. The title page nearly identically mirrors the formatting of “Combined Gospel Hymns” apart from the varying fonts (figure 4) and includes music notation (figure 5)—a feature they would depart from in the future publication of “Combined Gospel Hymns”. Notably, this publication also credits Rev. Robert Lowry. Perhaps as a turn of fate, the publishing house appointed Ira Sankey as president in 1895 (National Endowment for the Humanities, 2024). 

Figure 5: Musical Notation included in Biglow and Main’s “Chapel Melodies,” 1868.

John Church & Co. Of New York and Cincinnati co-published this book—a music retailer and manufacturing house founded in 1859 in Cincinnati that primarily produced sheet music and pianos (Stinnet, 2024). Despite John Church’s propensity towards sheet music, the publication notably omits music notation altogether, bringing into question why exactly Biglow & Main chose Mr. Church’s company in particular to be a co-publisher of “Combined Gospel Hymns.” One reason might have been the momentum of John Church’s company at that time. Clearly, the publishing house played a significant role in the music industry of the late 1800’s, as The National Register of Historic Places added the original John Church building to their list (Stinnet, 2024), despite no longer being in operation (figure 6). Nevertheless, John Church & Co. Handled both the printing and binding of this book in-house in Cincinnati (Stinnet, 2024). John Church later expanded into cities like New York, Chicago, and Boston after finding great success in Ohio (Adams, 2021). As a result of their success in the music industry, the Royal Manufacturing Company bought Mr. Church’s company as they acquired many others into the fold in 1891 (figure 7).  

Figure 7: Records of the merger between the Royal Manufacturing Company with various music manufacturing and printing houses including John Church & Co.

Figure 6: John Church & Co. Building, Chicago.

Bibliography

Reese, Ed. “Life and Ministry of Philip Bliss.” Christian Biographies, June 13 1999, https://www.wholesomewords.org/biography/biobliss.html

National Endowment for the Humanities. “Biglow & Main.” Hymnary. Accessed October 13 2024. https://hymnary.org/person/BiglowMain

Adams, Nathaniel. “John Church Company & Royal Manufacturing Company – Cincinnati, Ohio.” S. Nathaniel Adams, Documenting history as well as my experiences with repairing and restoring vintage guitars, August 17 2021. https://www.snathanieladams.com/2021/08/john-church-company-royal-manufacturing.html

Stinnet, Michael. “Church, John & Company.” Antique Piano Shop. Accessed October 13 2024. https://antiquepianoshop.com/online-museum/church-john-company/

Ross, Stephen, Ross, Dorothy. “Philip P. Bliss Songwriters Museum.” Wholesome Words. Accessed October 13, 2024. https://www.wholesomewords.org/biography/biobliss16.html