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The Book of John Mandeville: Constantinople

February 16, 2022 / Juliana / 0 Comments

Mandeville is especially concerned in this section with the religious history and religious significance of Constantinople. He writes at length about relics that are housed there, including the sponge and reed which Jesus drank from on the cross, one of the nails that held him to the cross, and part of the crown of thorns which he wore as he died (8-10). He also writes about saints who were buried in Constantinople, listing St. Anne, St. Luke the evangelist, and St. John Chrysostom. It seems that he wants his readers to know the fullest extent of Constantinople’s religious heritage, and he picks back up on this a few pages later when he talks about religious differences between Greek and English Christians.

Mandeville also writes about buildings, discussing the Emperor’s palace and drawing attention to its beauty. He claims the palace “is really lovely and beautifully adorned” and notes its practical design features as well as the aesthetic elements, stating that the Emperor’s stables were built underneath tiered seats in a jousting court (using space that may otherwise have been wasted) and that the stables’ pillars were made of marble (12). He draws attention to the wealth of Constantinople through these details, as well as when he describes the geography; he writes that “Constantinople is a very beautiful and great city with strong walls and it is three-cornered” (11). Mandeville seems to make a connection between wealth, beauty, and political strength by listing beauty, greatness, and strength as equal descriptors of the city, and echoes this sentiment when describing the Emperor’s palace.

Mandeville links beautiful buildings with religion in his description of St. Sophie’s church, which he calls “the finest and most beautiful church in the world” (8). He continues to describe a statue of the Emperor Justinian in front of the church. Here Mandeville slips from describing what he sees to reporting what people tell him: he presents a legend about this statue, explaining that it used to hold an apple which represented the emperor’s political power. Mandeville claims that “people have tried many times to put the apple back into the statue’s hand again, but it will not hold it; this apple signifies the lordship he once had over the world” (8). This moment is interesting to me in its intersection of politics and religion; not only does a statue of an emperor stand outside of a church, but the symbolism of a fallen apple reminds me of the fall of Adam and Eve in Christian mythology. I wonder if Mandeville is making an implicit connection that his contemporary readers would have picked up on.

Mandeville states his purpose in recording “things [that] are not relevant to the journey” at the end of this chapter, after he spends three long paragraphs describing the ways Greek Christians differ from English Christians in the ways they practice their faith (13-14). He claims he wants to show his readers differences in faith and culture for entertainment purposes, arguing that “many people take great pleasure and comfort to hear talk of unfamiliar things” (14). This points both to his purpose in writing and what his audience would have found unusual; Mandeville provides an impressive list of the differences in Greek Christianity compared to the Christianity of his readers (13), giving the impression that these details would provide a kind of shock value to his audience.

(pp. 7-14)

The Travels of Marco Polo: Armenia/Turkey

February 16, 2022 / emilye / 0 Comments

Marco Polo arrives in the land of Armenia, a country which he describes as being two separate countries, the Lesser Armenia and the Greater Armenia, and Turkey. The majority of Polo’s descriptions of these countries that he visits are centered around their economic success and potential due to the variety and abundance of natural resources at their disposal.

Polo spends extensive time detailing the expansive and varied quantity of commodities available to the Armenians to sell to traveling merchants. He mainly describes the people of Lesser Armenia in the context of their sellable resources and rarely mentions further details about the type of people they are, what they look like, or how they live. Though he does not speak much of it, Polo does mention the Lesser Armenians “live off their flock” and notes the sweltering climate of the country (47). He comments on the excruciating heat of the climate as being “far from healthy”, which he then attributes to the inappropriate, “craven and “mean-spirited” behavior, and the excessive drinking of these people (46). Marco also mentions how the Turks breed good quality horses and mules and the Armenians have a large silver mine available to them (47). Additionally, the Turks are able to weave the “choicest and most beautiful carpets in the world” so they make a living by selling their crafts (47).

Most of the observations Polo includes in his account of his visit to the Armenians are related to the potential merchant interest in what products the country offers. He makes particular note of the abundance of goods the countries have due to their flourishing environmental surroundings. Polo describes a very tall mountain in the “heart” of Greater Armenia, which fertilizes their fields (48). At the mountain, which the Armenians call the Mountain of Noah’s Ark due to its cube shape, Noah’s ark is said to have once rested at its top, the “snow lies so deep all the year round that no one can ever climb it” and never fully melts (48). However, the lower slopes on the mountains gather the moisture from the higher slopes creating such luscious vegetation that animals flock to their land so the people are never low on supply of food and create the “best summer pasturage for beasts” (48).

Given Marco Polo’s family background of wealthy, well-respected merchants, it would be expected that most of his observations were directed towards the commerce and craftsmanship of the countries he visits. His comments in this passage focus on how the varying resources at the disposal of the Armenians and the Turks would be of interest to a merchant, like himself and his family. He frequently details the quality or abundance of different goods provided by the countries’ citizens, as a merchant would judge potential purchases. As well, his notes about the way the Lesser Armenians react to their hot climate showcases his privilege as a young merchant growing up under the wing of a widely successful merchant, his father. His father had achieved such a high status that royalty respected them enough to treat them better than some of their own citizens when they would make their travels. Marco’s description of the Lesser Armenians reaction to the heat, depicting them as uncivilized alcoholics, reveals his negative interpretation of impoverished individuals due to his inherited wealth and status.

Ibn Fadlān and the Land of Darkness: Bukhārā

February 16, 2022 / Payton Hull / 0 Comments

I decided to start with the first major location that Ibn Fadlān visits, Bukhārā. In his description he focuses on the people he meets with. He and his party have a meeting with Amir Nasr ibn Ahmad, arranged by his minister Jayhānī. Ibn Fadlān notes that Jayhānī is called “the venerable support” in Khurāsān. He also says that they “spent several days waiting and then Jayhānī requested an audience” with the amir for them. This suggests something about the status and job description of the minister; either he has the power to decide when people are seen by the amir or he is familiar enough with his schedule to know when a good time to request a meeting be set. Fadlān does not say much directly about the amir, except that he is “a beardless youth”. The notes suggest that Nasr ibn Ahmad was only sixteen or seventeen when they met (5). The party stayed in Bukhārā waiting for Ahmad ibn Mūsā, who was meant to be travelling with them, but they were ushered out of the city before winter. Another thing Fadlān was interested in was the different use of coins in the area, specifically that they were counted instead of weighed in some transactions. Of course, this system might be used for other types of purchases that he has not mentioned, but it is definitely used for settling dowries and buying slaves and property.

When the party arrived in Bukhārā they were immediately given a house to stay in and a servant to provide them with “anything” they might want (5). Considering that we know this travelling party wouldn’t be small, I think it is safe to assume that this was only for the upper members of the group if they all fit into one house. They stayed for twenty eight days in the late fall.

The first unusual thing I noticed is that we begin to hear about temperature differences at the very beginning of the story. So far, they have only moved about 400 miles north of Baghdad, though about 1,200 miles east, and today Bukhārā has a low of around thirty degrees in February. To me, this does not seem too bad. However, it adds some perspective to the coming description of “the cold of hell” (8). To people who have lived in warm temperatures their entire lives, any colder temperatures would feel even more extreme, and even painful, as they move northward.

The purpose of Ibn Fadlān writing this account is to share information with the caliph. When he describes Amir Nasr ibn Ahmad he mentions that he is young and, technically, not a man yet. But greater care is taken to describe how the amir reacts to the letters of instruction Fadlān brings him from the caliph. He seems to accept the instructions happily. However, he was meant to transfer the revenue overseen by al-Fadl ibn Mūsā to Ahmad ibn Mūsā, who is trying to catch up to the group. But Ahmad ibn Mūsā never reaches the group because someone tips off al-Fadl ibn Mūsā, who has him caught on the road and dealt with. I suppose this means there was no one to whom the amir could transfer the funds, since al-Fadl ibn Mūsā ushered the group out of the city by convincing some of the party that they needed to leave now, or they would have to stay the whole winter. This is a very helpful comment which keeps the group appraised of the weather conditions in an unfamiliar area and, incidentally, saves the man al-Fadl ibn Mūsā works for a lot of money. The person who tipped him off could have been the amir. Maybe he isn’t as loyal to the caliph as he made it sound.

Ibn Fadlān also says that they greeted Nasr ibn Ahmad with the title of amir, which to me implies they had a choice. Maybe, since they are from another province, they have the option to recognize the rule of someone else, though this seems unlikely to me. The detailed description of the use of different coins tells me that there are less types of coins in Baghdad and that counting them instead of weighing them is different, but that it isn’t weird to pay for marriage or have slaves.

The Travels of Ibn Battutah: Alexandria

February 15, 2022 / rices / 0 Comments

During Ibn Battutah’s pilgrimage to the Holy House in Mecca, he spent a considerable amount of time in Alexandria (al-Iskandariyah), Egypt, to explore the city and its culture. Battutah arrived on April 5, 1326, via a travel caravan from Tunis, and he stayed in Alexandria for several weeks. This section of Battutah’s travel narrative reflects his interest in the city’s culture, both via descriptions of cultural monuments as well as descriptions of the individuals with whom he interacted. He frequently expresses extreme awe towards the city from a visual, economic, and social perspective, and relays several positive experiences during his time there.

Battutah’s positive attitude towards Alexandria is first shaped by its beautiful and practical visual features. He specifically focuses on the city’s architecture, as it is not only visually appealing but also has aspects of functionality. The city includes a large citadel, secular buildings, religious edifices, and an impressive sea port. While describing the various structures in the city, he claims that they are built “in the way of embellishment and embattlement” that reflect “architectural perfection”(6). Battutah’s use of the word “embellishment” refers to the physical beauty of the city’s structures, while “embattlement” focuses on their strength and functionality. With his word choice, Battutah does not appreciate outward beauty without simultaneously considering its rational purpose. This reflects Battutah’s cultural values as a practicing Muslim; members of the Islamic faith express disdain towards waste and extravagance, so it makes sense for Battutah to justify Alexandria’s outward beauty and extravagance with its practicality and purpose.

While describing the city’s architecture, Battutah goes on to explain the structure and purpose of the city’s port. He credits some of the port’s success to its well-built structure, but also considers Alexandria’s geographic location as a key factor to its success. He refers to the city and its port as a mediator between the East and the West, indicating its vital role in the world of trade, communication, and travel. When describing the city as a whole, Battutah focuses on the man-made features; when describing the port, however, he references the man-made features as well as the geographical features in relation to the city’s success. The narrator’s shift in description shows that Alexandria’s success, especially in regards to trade, communication, and travel, relies on civilization competence just as much as geographic luck. For cities to thrive, they need to be in an economically beneficial location; this was especially true in the medieval ages because limited knowledge and resources made it more difficult to overcome limiting geographic features.

Battutah’s narrative also describes his interactions with the citizens of Alexandria. He considers all of the city’s people to be friendly and hospitable, but mainly interacts and describes his time spent with other educated, religious individuals such as Burhan al-Din the Lame and Shaikh Yaqut al-Habashi. In his narrative, Battutah describes these two individuals based on those with whom they interact. For example, he explains how Burhan al-Din the Lame has family in India and China, and mentions that Shaikh Yaqut al-Habashi has relations with a famous saint named Abul Hasan al-Shadhili (9). Describing people based on their relation to other people supports the trend of network communication via word of mouth. The limited nature of medieval travel and communication made it so that networks of “people who know people who know people” could be used to communicate. So, while interacting with Burhan al-Din the Lame and Shaikh Yaqut al-Habashi, Battutah also learns about other people and places to visit. This information is incredibly influential, as it actually leads Battutah to alter the trajectory of his journey to visit a pious figure known by Shaikh Yaqut al-Habashi. Because all of this information is delivered via word of mouth, though, its accuracy and truthfulness inherently comes into question. Errors can easily occur when people speak to each other, yet Battutah does not address this potential issue. It remains unclear whether this is due to ignorance or acceptance of his inability to solve the issue.

Ibn-Baṭṭūṭa Muḥammad Ibn-ʿAbdallāh, and Tim Mackintosh-Smith. The Travels of Ibn Battutah. Translated by Gibb Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen, Picador, 2002.

The Travels of Benjamin of Tudela: Roma

February 8, 2022 / torresra / 0 Comments

One of the destinations of Benjamin of Tudela is Rome, the head of Christendom and one of the most powerful cities in medieval Europe. The narration of this passage focuses mainly on the description of the cultural elements of the city, including religion, architecture and History. The author also includes in this description, although to a lesser extent, some geographic aspects of the territory. However, the characteristics of the inhabitants and their traditions are left out.

Therefore, the author starts the description by underlying the fact that Rome is the seat of Pope Alejandro. He is interested in the presence of Jewish people as well, as he mentions them and specifies the quantity of Jewish people living in the city. Furthermore, the author claims that there were Jewish people among the great scholars of Rome, and, consequently, they are exempt from paying some taxes. In addition, the author mentions major figures of the Abrahamic religions, such as Jesus of Nazareth, Pepin, and Salomon.

Moreover, Benjamin of Tudela also pays attention to the architecture of the city. Again in relation to religion, some of the architectural complexes he outlines are St. Peter’s of Rome, the Pope’s palace, the Palace of Julius Caesar, the Colosseum and the “many wonderful structures in the city, different from any others in the world” (9), among others. In regard to the historical facts that the author brought into the description of Rome, the siege of Jerusalem is mentioned. Besides this, he mentions the number of deaths of some past wars, the king Charlemagne, the Consul and the Roman Senate.

Lastly, Benjamin of Tudela does not explain much about the geographical elements of the city. He briefly notes the extension of the territory and that it is separated in two parts due to the river Tiber. Likewise, he does not provide much information about the physical aspects of the trip; he only shares that it took him six days to travel from Lucca to Rome and four days to go from Rome to Capua, his next destination, which is portrayed as a good city with a sick population.

Although the author gives an exhaustive description of the cultural aspects of Rome, rather than a description of the city itself, this narration shows more clearly his own personality. Firstly, we can appreciate that he is very interested in the presence of Jewish people in the area and in the positions they hold. Therefore, we can deduce that he is proud of his community, of how highly-skilled and trained the Jewish people are, and that they are able to hold principal positions. He seems to be more interested in the economical and cultural identity of Jewish people, rather than in the religion. He does not mention or judge any of the religious differences he may have seen—not even about the people who practice different religions. Also, when he discusses the Jewish population he provides numeric data and facts with a logical and exacting perspective. His style is concise and direct, and he does not offer vague descriptions. Consequently, we can assume he values scientific rigor and objectivity.

This logical aspect of his personality is enhanced by his education. This narration proves that he is versed in History and architecture. We can imagine he may have been trained in these subjects in the Spanish kingdom of Navarra, his homeland, which may also be a sign of the cultural well-being of the Christian kingdoms. Similarly, since the intellectual elites of the Iberian Muslim kingdom were well-educated in mathematics and science, his logical mind could also be a consequence of being educated in Al-Andalus due to the close relation between this territory and the Christian Kingdoms.

Thus, both the Jewish culture and the culture of the Iberian Peninsula converge in the author’s profile; as a Jewish person, he demonstrates his interest in the condition of his people in different cities. As a man from the medieval kingdoms of Spain, his education most likely shaped his mindset, since he also seems to be used to the cohabitation of practitioners of the Abrahamic religions—an extraordinary and intriguing phenomenon that happened in the Iberian Peninsula during the Middle Ages despite the wars of religion that characterize this convoluted time period.

Of Tudela, Benjamin. The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela. Translated by Marcus Nathan Adler, 1st ed., New York, Philipp Feldheim, Inc., 1907. The Project Gutenberg EBook, www.gutenberg.org/files/14981/14981-h/14981-h.htm, pp. 8-11.

Mapping the Global Middle Ages