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The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela: Bagdad (Baghdad)

February 28, 2018 / Molly / 0 Comments

Benjamin travels to the city of Bagdad during his journey. It takes him two days to arrive from Okbara, a place with 10,000 Jews. It is hard to tell how long Benjamin stayed in Baghdad, but he writes extensively about it, especially in comparison to other cities he visited, so it was an important visit to him. The first topic he brings up is not the appearance of the city, but the religion of the people there, which makes sense because throughout his journey, religion is Benjamin’s main focus. He explains the role of the Caliph, likening him to the Christian Pope, bringing in another religion to give context to the position of the Caliph. Then he gets into where the Caliph lives, reporting details about the Caliph’s palace and living conditions as well as the greater landscape. Benjamin focuses mostly on the roles and lifestyles of the Caliphs, so much so that one can tell how fascinated he is with them.

Then, Benjamin brings up Judaism within the context of Bagdad, which is interesting to me as a modern reader learning about this journey that took place so long ago, and wondering what the interactions between Muslims and Jews would be like during this time period. It turns out that Benjamin has nothing but good things to say about the Caliph and the great king. Benjamin writes that the great king is “kind unto Israel” and knows the language and laws of it. The great king is regarded by his people as Mohammed.

Benjamin writes in great detail about the great Caliph’s palace, focusing on the opulence and luxury of his lifestyle. In the same section, he then details the sacrifice of a camel. The very last sentence is “He is a benevolent man.” In the next section Benjamin goes on to explain how the Caliph is able to heal the sick, saying that he is “a righteous man, and all his actions are for good,” which feels almost like propaganda to bring back to Tudela. As if he is trying to appease other Jews for the possibility of being taken over by the Islamic empire.

Then, Benjamin begins to write about the 40,000 Jews who live in Bagdad, with 28 synagogues, paying special attention to note that they live in “security, prosperity and honour” under the great Caliph, again, as if trying to provide comfort under the impending takeover of the Islamic empire. He provides details about successful Jewish people living in Bagdad in addition to details about how Jews and Muslims are able to come together to escort Mohammed to the great Caliph and the Head of Captivity, who is reportedly very kind to the Jewish people in Bagdad and in return receives many gifts from them, again, possibly another way for Benjamin to mollify the Jews of Tudela.

Benjamin seems to be writing this in a fairly matter of fact manner, but his attempt at pacifying the people back home about the Islamic empire is overt.

The Travels of Marco Polo: Chang-chau

February 28, 2018 / cosbye / 0 Comments

Marco Polo describes the three-day journey of heading eastwards from Chin-kiang-fu to Chang-chau. He says a traveler would cross many cities containing people who “are all idolaters, subject to the Great Khan, and using paper money” (Polo, 211).

Marco Polo gives a general overview of Chang-chau. Marco Polo says the people of this city “are idolaters, subject to the Great Khan, using paper money” (211). He then discusses that they are known for trade and commerce. He notes that they have an abundance of silk and produce cloths made of gold and other silk fabrics. Marco Polo also says they have abundant animals such as birds and beasts most likely referring to large animals. He then says they have lush soil providing life to sustain the city.

It is evident Marco Polo feels strongly about the attributes he uses to describe these cities. This seems to be his way of suggesting that these cities are vastly foreign in comparison to the Christian and governmental views of Western Europeans. For instance, the word “idolaters” refer to a religious group that worships idols which counters Christian beliefs. This is Marco Polo’s way of saying not only are these people, not Christian, they go against Christian beliefs. Similarly, “burning their dead” also greatly contrasts Christian beliefs that believe burning of the body will not only cut themselves off from any chance of resurrection. Paper money shows the currency used which is practical for travelers to know and further speaks to the difference between these cultures. Lastly, in saying people are subject to the Khan, it is important to note since it is necessary to have an idea of the laws and who one is subject to depending on one’s location. It additionally provides a window for the Western Europeans to have an idea of the influence and expansion of the Great Khan’s empire.

Marco Polo’s discussion of trade is a common thread among his many descriptions of cities. As a traveling merchant, it makes sense as to why he would view this area to be crucial in determining a city’s success. It also speaks to the not only foreign goods but the luxurious items he came across in his travels. Marco Polo emphasizes that “gold” was incorporated into the fabric which would have further emphasized the value of this material. This would be appealing to Western Europeans who would have viewed these as foreign and valuable items. Marco Polo’s mention of birds, beasts, and soil was used to further the success of the vegetation and livelihood of the city.

Marco Polo then shares a story about the city and describes it as a devilish action that resulted in rightful punishment by the people of Chang-chau. Following the fall of Manzi to the Great Khan, Bayan, a commander of Great Khan’s army, sent his men to take down Chang-chau. Marco Polo identifies the men sent as Alans and Christians. When the Alans were outside Chang-chou, they stumbled across wine. As a result, they drank too much causing the men to lose their sense of right and wrong. The citizens of the city witnessed their captors’ drunken behavior and considered these men as good as dead. Without waiting to act, the city men killed all of the captors that night. When word reached Bayan who was the leading commander of the captors, he was furious and sent many troops to conquer the city by force. The city, as a result, was destroyed and Bayan’s men killed the entirety of the city.

Marco Polo begins his story opening with his strong opposition to the drunken actions of the Alans that they justly deserved. Marco Polo then uses religion to identify the groups that were a part of Bayan’s men. Marco Polo was emphasizing that Christians were among the Great Khan’s men to shut down Western European fears of the Great Khan. This could also infer Marco Polo’s harbored racist feelings towards non-Christian groups. Marco Polo puts the blame solely on the Alans as if to separate and blame this race for its uncivilized behavior. Marco Polo seems to agree with the actions of the Chang-chau since he condemns the drunken behavior even going as far to say it as to label it as “wicked.” His strong opposition also presents a warning to Western Europeans for the evil caused by drinking to excess. Yet, Marco Polo also supports Bayan’s decision to eliminate everyone in the city. Ultimately, Marco Polo sides with the Great Khan and shaped their victory as deserved in order to further express the power of their empire.

The Book of John Mandeville: Constantinople

February 26, 2018 / Alexis Wiggins / 0 Comments

The author’s description of Constantinople continues the pattern mentioned in my previous post where he tends to write more as a form of entertainment than an actual travel narrative. The city of Constantinople is described in chapter two, “One Way to Jerusalem” because, according to the author, it is a major city europeans must pass through to travel to Jerusalem. The author spends most of the chapter supposedly on the subject of Constantinople, however I say supposedly because a lot of the time he is on a religious tangent that distantly relates to the city. Nevertheless he does provide concrete information. The author tells us that the emperor of Greece usually lives in Constantinople, and briefly describes the emperor’s palace. He gives some history of the Greek empire, mixing this history in with descriptions of local attractions. He also touches on some of the cultural importance and local superstitions of these places, and lists a few other relics and famous bodies buried at Constantinople. He explains what the city physically looks like as well as the geography around it in describing the mountains, listing the islands nearby and including local stories about certain geographical points.

However, the bulk of the chapter is spent on religious information. In the middle of describing the city, the author goes into a tangent about the story of Jesus on the cross. He describes the different forms of wood used to make the cross and why they were used, includes a short story about Adam, and ends with explaining what happened to Jesus on the night he was arrested. While the story distantly relates to Constantinople, it is a weak connection and modern readers would consider it a unrelated inclusion. However, it is apparent that religion is an important subject to the author because he spends another considerable part of the chapter explaining how the religion practiced by citizens of Constantinople, while technically considered Christianity, is different from the normal practices.

The vast amount of time the author spends on the subject of religion, be it the random religious stories or the detailed explanation of why Constantinople christianity is different, reveals the deep importance of religion, and christianity in particular, to the author and the culture he is writing for. Roughly four out of the eight pages spent on Constantinople are actually about religious aspects. On one hand, it is true that the information the author provides about the difference in the practice of Christianity would be helpful for travelers during that time because it would give them an idea of what to expect from a community of people that they identify with. However, the religious stories of Adam and Jesus on the cross really give no necessary information about travel to Constantinople, and these take up most of the religious portion. The lack of legitimate helpful information in this chapter lends to the argument that this book was written more as an piece of entertainment than an actual guidebook or an travel record. The author structured his book to be a form of amusement for a culture in which Christianity and religion was a vital part of daily life.

The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela: Constantinople

February 25, 2018 / leffa / 0 Comments

As was the case with each of his other journey’s, it is unclear how long Benjamin of Tudela stayed at the locations that he visited. Not long after his travels to Rome however, he made his way to Constantinople, with several stops along the way. From Abydos, Egypt it took him five days to arrive to Constantinople. He noted that the circumference of the city was 18 miles, half of which was surrounded by sea with the other half was surrounded by land. Constantinople was said by Benjamin to be situated upon two arms of the sea, one from Russia (the Black Sea) and one from the ‘sea of Sepharad’ (the Aegean Sea). Unfortunately we do not learn more about the practical or physical aspects of Benjamin’s journey. Yet given the substantial amount of detail in which he described the city’s cultural, societal and religious significance it can be assumed that Benjamin felt it more important to document his experiences throughout his trips rather than his physical journey.

In Constantinople, Benjamin paid great attention to the importance of the city. At the time, Constantinople served as the capital of Javan (otherwise known as Greece). He proceeded to describe the residence of King Emanuel the Emperor, as well as the ministers that served under him, and the hierarchy of the rest of the state of Javan. In general, Constantinople was a very busy city with all sorts of merchants coming from all over the world either by land or sea. Benjamin even compared it to Baghdad in terms of being a city of trade. Extreme wealth was brought to the city as a result of the two islands, several castles and villages that surrounded Constantinople. Benjamin then described the church of Santa Sophia and explained that Constantinople acted as the seat of the pope of Greece, since Greece did not follow the pope of Rome. He made note of all the traditions practiced and celebrated within the churches and the surrounding culture of the city, such as performances that the king and queen would host. Additionally, Benjamin told of the palace that King Emanuel built for the seat of his government, and paid especial attention to the extravagant use of jewels, silver and gold that went into the structure of this palace. He further explained the wealth of Greece and the fact that tributes are brought to all of the important edifices in Constantinople. Each year these tributes amounted to about 20,000 pieces of gold from shops, markets and/or merchants. Greeks were also very rich in gold and precious stones, in addition to being clothed in garments of silk and gold embroidery. Benjamin even went so far as to say that the Greeks looked like princes when they rode their horses. He concluded his account of Constantinople by claiming that the land was rich in clothing materials, bread, meat and wine. He didn’t believe that wealth of this kind could be found anywhere else.

Before moving on to the next location on his itinerary however, Benjamin added a final thought pertaining to religion. He stated that no Jews lived in Constantinople. Rather they lived in a Jewish quarter called Pera located behind an inlet of sea. The population of this Jewish quarter was made of 2000 Rabbinate Jews and 500 Karaïtes with a fence that divided the two groups. He then added that the Greeks hated the Jews and subjected them to oppression, even going so far as to beat them in the streets. The Jews in response were rich, good, kindly and charitable beings. This final account strikes as very interesting given that earlier Benjamin had almost glorified the Greeks for their wealth and their swagger when riding horses.

It seems that in this account, Benjamin was much more concerned with the culture of Constantinople, rather than its geography or the edifices of the city. However, he was still very much concerned with religion and the breakdown of Judaism within the city. Despite the fact that Jews were excluded from living directly in Constantinople and the way the Greeks oppressed them, Benjamin doesn’t seem to write with much distaste, anger or even bias, making his account seem all the more trustworthy.

The Travels of Marco Polo: Lesser Armenia

February 15, 2018 / Shannon Nolan / 0 Comments

The first description Polo gives his audience is that of Lesser Armenia, and the town of Ayas. Despite the passage’s size, Polo provides the image of a bustling, geographic and economic epicenter that acts as the beginning of many long journeys. He simultaneously highlights the importance of this region for trade and gives modern readers insight into the knowledge and attitude of Italians in the 13th century in relation to the Middle East.

In describing the actual city of Ayas, Polo calls it “a busy emporium” with large amounts of spice and silk trade (Polo, 46). It is the starting point for a majority of journeys east due to its central location along the Mediterranean. Polo notes a large number of merchants from Venice and Genoa, two Italian city-states on the opposite coasts of the Italian peninsula. Modern readers are given insight to the wealth of Venice and Genoa, as well as the merchant culture that must have existed in the two cities.

Outside of the city, Polo takes great interest in the geopolitical location of the entirety of Lesser Armenia. He describes it as “bounded on the south by the Promised Land, now in the hands of the Saracens; on the north by the western district of Turkey, known as Karaman; on the north-east and east by eastern Turkey, with the towns of Kaisarieh and Sivas and many others, all subjects to the Tartars; and on the west by the sea that is crossed by ships sailing to Christendom” (Polo, 46). This description of Lesser Armenia’s surrounding area demonstrates an intricate understanding of the geography and settlements of the Middle East. Polo had access to information on geological features and directions, town names, and groups of people. His position as a merchant would have given him access to this information, as his father and uncle would have been able to relay it to him, and interactions with the locals would have allowed him access to information other Italians would not have had. However the way that Polo introduces each new region, with a name and only one qualifying characteristic, indicates that the average Italian noble who would have read this book, understands where Turkey’s regions and who the Tartars are.

In his explanation of regions surrounding Lesser Armenia, Polo generalizes European nations as “Christendom.” By labeling this region by its shared religion, as opposed to racial or political features, Polo demonstrates the importance of religious identity to the Medieval traveler. Religion in this time would therefore act the way that race does in the modern era to unify regions and create discord amongst different groups of people. In describing the Turks later on, Polo writes that “the Turkomans, who worship Mahomet and keep his law, are a primitive people, speaking a barbarous language” (Polo, 46). For Polo, religion is important enough to be listed as a reason for one groups barbarism.

The opening and closing scenes in any text are places of privilege. By beginning this account with the physical beginning to his, and many other merchant’s, journey Polo highlights this importance of Aya and Lesser Armenia. It is the start. By recording important details of the geopolitical situation in the region, Polo also demonstrates the knowledge of geography and culture that Italian travelers possessed as early as the 13th century.

Mapping the Global Middle Ages