Month: February 2018 (Page 3 of 4)

The Travels of Marco Polo: Tarbiz

February 15, 2018 / cosbye / 0 Comments

Marco Polo does not discuss the specificities of his journey. He seems more focused on the productivity aspect such as trade and foreign goods that Tabriz has to offer.

Marco Polo believes Tabriz to be a wonderful city due to the city’s prosperous trade and market. The city is known for its luxurious woven cloth in silk and gold. The city is additionally known for having abundant stones which were highly regarded by passing travelers. Marco Polo discusses the city’s location which allows it to thrive in trade and foreign goods. The city is situated close to India and Baghdad; it allows for these neighboring countries to trade and brings in foreign goods. It also seems that this location is well known to travelers and many take advantage of the city’s goods through their travels.

Marco Polo holds the city in high regards in terms of trade; however, he does not hold the city’s people to the same standard. He refers to the inhabitants as “a mixed lot and good for very little”. The majority of the people that made up Tabriz were Georgians, Persians, Armenians, Nestorians, and Jacobites. The natives of the city were Mahomet worshipers. He refers to the Sarcers (Arabs) of Tabriz as evil and sinful. He blames their sinful behavior on the religious law that they follow since sin is easily forgiven. He also says that any harm Sarcers do to those who do not follow their laws is permitted.

Marco Polo then discusses of a monastery which is named after the Venerable St Barsamo. He notices that the monks wear a habit that resembles the style of Carmelites. He sees the monks weaving woolen girdles which they place on the altar of St. Barsamo. The monks hand out the girdles to noblemen to relieve pain in the body.

From Marco Polo’s descriptions, he judges a city’s prosperity largely on the basis of commerce and trade. He holds Tarbiz in high regard in the goods they sell and their abundance of trade with foreign countries. He seems to pay much attention to a location’s commercial success; however, he seems to be invested in religious differences.

Marco Polo seems to have strong views on religious practices. He insults the religious laws the Tabriz natives follow. He blames their religion for their lack of morals since it does not punish or chastise sinful behavior. Marco Polo’s strong take on these religious practices shows that he might be a Catholic or of Christian background. Marco Polo grew up in Venice which would have had a strict code of morals in which people had to follow and would be chastised for any immoral behavior. In one of his descriptions, Marco Polo expresses his knowledge in Catholicism when he compares the habit the monks wear to the style of Carmelites. Additionally, he draws similarities between the monk’s religious acts to those practiced by Catholics. In drawing similarities between these religious practices, it can be inferred that Marco Polo was intending to write to a Catholic audience in terms that they would understand. It could also be argued that Marco Polo was trying to make sense of the practices he saw by drawing a similarity to familiar practices. From these descriptions, it is obvious that Marco Polo judges the overall success of a city based on its trade and wealth; however, he seems to be impacted by a city’s religious and cultural differences.

Ibn Fadlān and the Land of Darkness: Bukhārā

February 15, 2018 / messere / 0 Comments

In Bukhārā, Ibn Fadlan focuses his writing almost entirely on his interactions with Nasr ibn Ahmad, whom ibn Fadlan describes as “a beardless youth.” After Nasr ibn Ahmad inquires after “the Commander of the Faithful,” the letter commanding him to transfer funds from al-Fadl ibn Musa to Ahmad ibn Musa al-Khwarazmi via Ibn al-Furat is read to him, but Ahmad ibn Musa cannot be found. Here, Ibn Fadlan makes clear that the Christian, Fadl ibn Musa has played a trick by having the agent, Ahmad ibn Musa arrested in Merv and inhibiting the transfer of money. Ibn Fadlan waits in Bukhara for twenty-eight days before concluding that to wait any longer would be to risk the cold of winter and prevent further travel, and so they leave for Khwarazm. However, before continuing the narrative in Khwarazm, Ibn Fadlan dedicates a short passage to describe trade methods in the city. He relates how copper, brass and bronze dirhams are used to settle dowrys, buy and sell property, and the trade of slaves.

What appears to surprise Ibn Fadlan most is that those in Bukhara “don’t use any other type of dirhams for [the purposes of property and slave trading].” This implies that dowries are handled differently in Baghdad, which is surprising considering the manner in which Nasr in Ahmad inquires after the caliph Muqtadir, indicating that the city is under the same rule as Baghdad. Ibn Fadlan’s reaction almost seems to indicate he thinks it inappropriate or incorrect to treat marriage, essentially the trading of a “free” woman between a father and a husband, as the same or a similar transaction of property and slaves. This gives insight into the position of women in Baghdad as very hierarchal, depending on their status as slave or free.

Ibn Fadlan also makes his prejudices against non-Muslims clear in his representation of the agent who sabotaged his mission to transfer funds. He writes the name of Ibn al-Furat’s agent twice, and both times, the name is accompanied by the appositive “the Christian.” Not only is this the only mention of religion in the entire passage dedicated to Ibn Fadlan’s time in Bukhara, but it also serves to isolate Fadl ibn Musa from the other participants, making it easier to land the blame on him. The use of this appositive also indicates that Ibn Fadlan anticipates that his audience or readership will find this tidbit of information important and, perhaps, clarifying; with parchment as such a precious commodity in this time, Ibn Fadlan would not have wasted a word. This not only reveals Ibn Fadlan’s own prejudices against non-Muslims, but also confirms the stereotypes and prejudices of his audience and those for whom he was writing. This covert attack on Fadl ibn Musa on the basis of his Christianity is further cemented with the use of the word “trick” to describe his tactics in handling his employer’s affairs, a word which not only derogates his actions but also clears Ibn Fadlan of blame. He was tricked, and so he is therefore not responsible for the failure of the expedition, nor can he be written off as an irresponsible delegate.

The Book of Margery Kempe: Zierikzee

February 15, 2018 / flemingg / 0 Comments

After departing Norwich and Yarmouth, England, Margery Kempe travels with her confessor and a group of companions and arrives in Zierikzee. Out of personal interest, I looked into Zierikzee and discovered that today it is a small city in southwest Netherlands, near Rotterdam. Margery mentions briefly that they traveled by boat and that it took one day for them to get to Zierikzee from the port in Yarmouth, England. Kempe describes Zierikzee as a “large town” but otherwise does not focus much on the architecture or inhabitants of the city (96). Instead, Margery puts intense focus on the religious practices she performs while in Zierikzee and places immense focus on the way her fellow travelers treat her. For example, she speaks at length about how the Lord visited her in Zierikzee and gave her “tears of contrition for her own sins” and other people’s sins as well (96). She claims to have attended communion every Sunday when it was possible, “with weeping and violent sobbing” so that people marveled at her (97). Kempe then details how in England she had not eaten meat or drunk wine for four years, but that in Zierikzee her confessor asked her to begin doing so. Margery did for a while, but then stopped, and prayed to “her confessor to excuse her if she ate no meat” (97). Her eventual refusal to eat meat annoyed her confessor as well as many of the company she was traveling with. Margery spends most of her time discussing Zierikzee by talking about how cruel her company was to her, stating that they were annoyed by how much she wept and spoke of the Lord’s goodness. Once Margery expresses how hurt and ashamed her company has made her feel, they tell her they hope she dies “the devil’s death” (97). Her closest friends desert her and even her maidservant is taken from her, and the entire company (save one person) abandons her in the night. One of the company invites her to travel with fellow pilgrims to Constance, Germany but she laments over how this company treats her as well, as they cut her skirts short and made her wear a type of sack so she’d look like a fool. She does remark that the man of the house wherever they would stay after leaving Zierikzee treated her kindly and with high esteem, leaving the impression that the people of this area were very kind towards women, moreso than her original English company. It is never stated what time of the year they arrived, or how long Margery Kempe stayed. However, it can be assumed it was a couple weeks, as she describes going to communion on multiple Sundays.

Margery Kempe as a traveler is evidently consumed with the culture of Christianity, but focuses on a reverence between her personal relationship with God, claiming that God visits her and forgives her for disobeying her confessor when she speaks to God directly. She frequently has visions of the passion of Christ, which move her to tears, as they did in Zierikzee. She describes her tears as though they are a hairshirt, a gift from God proving her superior love for him. Her way of gaining auctoritee (authority) through writing her travel narrative appears to be a way to reaffirm that her role as a pilgrim is about her pure and true devotion and connection with God, and that her devotion and loyalty is stronger than those she is traveling with to see a variety of Holy sites. The main thing I found interesting in Zierikzee was Margery’s description that she had not eaten meat or drank wine for four years in England, prior to her travels to Zierikzee and beyond. Her confessor asking her to eat meat and drink wine out of obedience and her pleading with God to forgive her for not listening, thus causing animosity between Margery, her confessor, and her company, was a topic I wished to delve into. The role of eating meat and drinking wine in Christianity of the Middle Ages seems as varied then as it is today. Dominican Friar Thomas Aquinas stated that moderation in wine is sufficient for salvation, but that for certain persons absolute abstinence is necessary to reach perfection (Aquinas, Summa Theologica, Question 149). On the other hand, the medieval church did still celebrate saints related to wine like St. Amand and St. Martin. When it comes to meat, Christian vegetarianism is still widely debated today, but the practice of Christian vegetarianism has scriptural and historical support. For example, before the fall of man, the Bible is commonly interpreted to describe a setting where all humans and animals with a soul are vegan and that “it was good,” with raw veganism being the diet prescribed by God to Adam and Eve (Genesis 1:29-31). While abstinence from meat is most common during periods of fast like Lent, the reasons given by the Church for why it was abstained from were due to the fact that things that are flesh or come from flesh (eggs, etc.) are “unclean” due to their creation from coitus. When considering Margery and her cultural religious background, she may have adopted this lifestyle of abstaining from meat and wine in order to become closer to God and become more God-like herself, by mimicking the diet of man before the Fall. She could have viewed this diet as a way to strengthen her relationship with God, which is why she chooses to disobey her confessor, as his wishes may have been seen as trying to tear her farther from God. In this way her refusal to obey her confessor and the chagrins of her company can almost be viewed as “going against God”. Her company and her confessor may have become frustrated with her diet due to the logistics of travel. Perhaps meat and wine were some of the most readily available meals to the group in Zierikzee, and her denial of these became a burden when trying to dine on the road.

The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela: Alexandria

February 15, 2018 / Molly / 0 Comments

It took Benjamin of Tudela two days to get from Lammanah to Alexandria. In his descriptions of Alexandria, Benjamin of Tudela is focused on the appearance of the city and the legends behind it. He is incredibly intrigued by the legend of Alexander of Macedon, the city’s founder. Benjamin was immediately impressed with Alexandria for its legacy of being strong and beautiful after Alexander of Macedon named it after himself. He notes the immaculate architecture and the importance of the city’s Aristotelian academy where people from all over the world travel to study. He also pays attention to the physicality of the city: the wide and straight streets and its position over a hollow.

From his writing, it is clear that Benjamin is impressed with Alexander and his product of Alexandria. He writes of a story about a lighthouse tower that Alexander built with a mirror on top of it so that the inhabitants of the city could see ships coming from the west and protect Alexandria from attempted attack. The Christians began to arrive at the lighthouse with their ships and eventually captured Crete and Cyprus. Benjamin goes into great detail about the function and legend of the lighthouse and how it has become a symbol for Alexandria, as it is somewhat of a port city, or a “commercial market for all nations,” as he puts it, listing various Christian and Muslim kingdoms who use it as such. At the end of his passage about Alexandria he describes a marble sepulchre by the coast and then quickly mentions that there are about 3,000 Jews who live in the city.

It is unclear as to how long Benjamin of Tudela spent in Alexandria, however it becomes clear what is important to him based on his writings. Benjamin is Jewish, but does not mention anything about the 3,000 Jewish people living in Alexandria. With just the mention of the number of Jews, it seems that it is enough for him to know that at least there are Jews present in the city. He is, however, careful to mention that it was the Christians who captured Crete and Cyprus from the powerful Alexander of Macedon.

The way Benjamin of Tudela writes of Alexandria makes it seem as if he is very familiar with the city via stories he has heard from other travelers. His tone makes it seem as though he is excited to finally see this famed city with his own eyes. He does not make note of anything that is too surprising to him, save for the marble sepulchre with the mystery ancient characters.

As a modern reader, I am not too surprised about any of Benjamin’s observations about Alexandria. I would expect this sort of fascination about the history of the city, however, I expected there to be more wonder in his tone of writing, especially about the people since he described Alexandria to be so busy. But, if he heard stories and descriptions of Alexandria prior to his own journey, he must not be too surprised about the actual appearance of the city.

The writer’s purpose in this journey seems to be to prove that he was there and remember specific details about it. It does not feel like this was written with the intention of an audience. If it was, it would have more fantastical details about the people and the landscape. To him, the importance was see what was actually there and noting how many Jewish people lived in the city.

The Book of the Wanderings of Felix Fabri (Circa 1480-1483): Botzen

February 15, 2018 / Kara Smith / 0 Comments

Felix Fabri describes his Botzen, now modern-day Bolzano, Italy, in the accounts of each of his pilgrimages to Jerusalem. His second account, however, describes the town in much more detail. Fabri focuses his second description on the people and culture of Bolzano, mainly on their tendency to be “sinful, given to drunkenness, luxury, and pride beyond measure” and so often overcome with fever symptoms that it ceases to be considered an illness (13). Interested in the ethnic composition of the town as well, Fabri notes that the majority of its citizens, as of a few years prior, were Italian, making the common language Italian, but that Botzen is now a German town. Commenting on the relationship of the people to their buildings, Fabri highlights that the town had recently almost entirely burned, a recurring incident that left many displaced, with more expensive buildings being constructed in the ruins.

Fabri’s group only stayed in Botzen for one night, the 20th of April , before continuing on their journey. They arrived after dinner on the 20th and left after dinner on the 21st. Fabri mentions that Botzen’s wine is “especially good” and “all fruits are sweet” there, but does not mention what they ate at the monastery or elsewhere (13).

To explain the cause of the widespread fever symptoms, Fabri explains that mountains on one side of the town block the “fresh wholesome air” so that the wind only comes from the nearby “pestilent marshes,” thus briefly describing the terrain of Botzen (13).

The climate of Botzen is described through Fabri’s telling of his previous visit with a friend. The friend jokes that the town must be the coldest town in the world to cause such widespread fever symptoms, but Fabri replies that it may be one of the warmest in actuality. A dry and hot climate would explain the widespread fires, too.

Some of the most interesting details of this account are revealed when Fabri describes the religious buildings, such as the monasteries and churches that were not touched by the flames, “as though by a miracle” (12). It is slightly confusing as to why Fabri refrains from directly calling the event a miracle, even though he readily tells the story of how the convent dormitory roof was saved from being devoured by flames when the Prior “called upon the Blessed Virgin for help” and accepts that the fire was caused by the “vengeance of Heaven” on the sinful town (13). Obviously, he fully believes in the interference of divine power in the town, so his reaction is a bit out of character.

It’s interesting to think that the constantly changing ethnic composition of Botzen and how it seems to directly influence which district and nation the town is considered part of. Fabri says that it was initially Italian, then switched to a German town. That shift caused the Botzen’s convent to switch from belonging to the province of St. Dominic to belonging to Fabri’s province. Since Botzen is now part of Italy again, it would be interesting to revisit the religious affiliations of the town.