Month: April 2022 (Page 8 of 8)

The Travels of Ibn Battutah: The Land of Mulaibar

April 13, 2022 / rices / 0 Comments

After nine years of traveling, Ibn Battutah claims, through his narrative, that he had reached South India. His first few weeks in South India mainly involved making short journeys via ship from island to island, traveling along shorelines, and visiting several coastal cities. Although Battutah did not note any of these islands or their communities as being particularly important or noteworthy, he did describe in great detail the land of Mulaibar. The Mulaibar territory, also referred to as pepper county, is known for its coastal road that connects the cities Sandabur and Kawlam. Battutah notes that it usually takes travelers two months to complete the journey, but that the road is notoriously safe and hospitable for Muslims and “infidels” alike. He does, however, describe the subtle ways in which the “infidels” persecute against Muslim travelers through their enforcement of body politics. In describing the land of Mulaibar, specifically focusing on the infidels who live in it and their treatment of Muslim travelers, Battutah shows the more nuanced ways in which religious power dynamics were enforced.

When describing the road through the land of Mulaibar, Battutah supports his claim that it is a safe and hospitable journey by noting that, after every half mile, there is a wooden shed, a bench, and a water well. An infidel cares for these amenities so that they can help the travelers rest and replenish. While this initially appears to be an amicable act on part of the infidels, Battutah goes on to explain that the infidels refuse to let Muslim travelers into their homes or use vessiles when eating and drinking. Instead, the infidels serve the travelers water in their hands and food on banana leaves. If a Muslim does eat off of the infidel’s plates, bowls, or cups, then the infidel “breaks the vessels or gives them to the Muslim” (220). Here, the infidels fear a Muslim touching, and consequently contaminate, their belongings. This shows the negative connotations that the infidels associate withMuslims and their Islamic faith, since the infidels see them as a contaminant.

Because it is the Muslims’ touch that the infidels fear, the Muslim body becomes engaged in religious-based body politics. Body politics, which refers to the ways in which social or institutional power regulates the human body, puts marginalized bodies in a position that lacks autonomy and promotes oppression. Although modern body politics are often associated with race, medieval body politics were associated with religion; this is because, as explained by Geraldine Hang, religion in the Middle Ages functioned similarly to race in the Modern Ages. In the instance Battutah describes, then, the infidels use body politics to oppress and dehumanize Muslim travelers because of their religion. Although the infidels still provide assistance to Muslim travelers, and although this oppression is not as extreme or noticeable as other forms of oppression, it still enforces an unequal power dynamic between two groups of people.

By acknowledging the body politics and microaggressions faced by Muslim travelers, Battutah shows that religious oppression can take many different forms. This section of the narrative provides greater insight into the typically overlooked struggles faced by travelers, and ultimately contributes to a more detailed, more realistic representation of Battutah’s travels.

Ibn-Baṭṭūṭa Muḥammad Ibn-ʿAbdallāh, and Tim Mackintosh-Smith. The Travels of Ibn Battutah. Translated by Gibb Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen, Picador, 2002.

The Travels of Ibn Battutah: Baghdad

April 13, 2022 / kremerv / 0 Comments

During his journey, Ibn Battutah stops in the city of Baghdad in modern day Iraq. Ibn Battutah comments on the cultural, religious, and communal locations that are noteworthy in the city. He also notes the general geographic layout of the city. Ibn Battutah spends around half of his writing about Baghdad speaking about the physical buildings and their characteristics, functions, and histories. Ibn Battutah starts by noting that Baghdad is nowhere near its former glory, having been sacked by the Mongols, but that it is still “the Abode of Peace and the capital of al-Islam.” This indicates that Ibn Battutah sees Baghdad as an influential city not only in its political influence, but in its religious influence. Ibn Battutah remarks that the Tigris River is the most beautiful thing left in Baghdad and speaks to its former glory. Ibn Battutah continues by describing some of the popular locations in Baghdad. He speaks at length about the bath houses that are popular in Baghdad. Ibn Battutah describes the beautiful rocks and stone that are used in constructing them. He also compliments their ingenuity in designing the bath houses with “cubicles” so that no one has to share unless they wish, and everyone can retain their modesty. Ibn Battutah also talks about the location of the bazaars, saying that they are large and grand. Ibn Battutah does not only describe secular buildings, but also talks about religious buildings like mosques and colleges. Ibn Battutah mentions that there are 11 mosques that hold Friday prayer on the regular, and notes on which side of the Tigris they reside. He describes the Nizamiyah College, which has all four schools of Muslim jurisprudence, and talks about the accommodations they have there. Finally, Ibn Battutah talks about the king of al-Iraq who happened to be in Baghdad while he was visiting. He says that the name of this Sultan is Abu Sa’id Bahadur Khan and that his father was called Muhammad Khudabandah. Ibn Battutah explains that it was Khudabandah that converted to Islam. But about the current sultan, he says that he was young, beautiful, and generous, but was murdered by his gorgeous, but jealous wife after he married another wife.

Ibn Battutah’s description of Baghdad and his encounters there illuminates some of the issues he deems important to society. Ibn Battutah is always incredibly focused on religious matters. Ibn Battutah was a Muslim jurist so it makes sense that he is noting the location of mosques and the colleges for the education of jurists. But Ibn Battutah’s focus goes beyond the surface level, like with how he comments on the bath houses maintaining modesty and his acceptance of the punishment given to the sultan’s murderous wife. Ibn Battutah clearly took his job as a jurist seriously and cared about maintaining the correct morality for a Muslim society. Ibn Battutah also notes the important people in Baghdad, namely the sultan of Iraq. By naming the sultan and praising him, Ibn Battutah secures his own position of influence, because he reaffirms the structures in power.

Ibn Fadlan And the Land of Darkness: Jurjanya

April 13, 2022 / walrondl / 0 Comments

After leaving Khwarazm, Ibn Fadlan and his caravan journey to Jurjanya. The distance between these two cities is about fifty farsakhs by boat according to Fadlan. He initially writes that his stay in Jurjanya was just more than a couple of days, however in later entries he accounts for a little over three months in Jurjanya. Since the Jayhun river froze over, inabling any travel by water, Fadlan’s stay in the city was extended for almost the entire winter.

During his time in Jurjanya, Fadlan is overwhelmed by the facets of cold weather, calling the land “a gate to the cold of hell,” (8). He takes note of the thickness of the ice that covers the river, claiming it was “seventeen spans thick,” and that “horses, mules, donkeys and carts slid over the ice as if on roads,” (8). It is unclear what measuable unit he means by “spans,” though it is assumed to be a gross exaggeration. Fadlan also accounts for practices relating to the cold weather. He writes that it is customary for friends to invite each other to sit by a fire, even beggars are treated to the fire before exchanges. This is relevant to Fadlan because in his culture, with customs and gestures centered around material gifts, there is no value placed on warmth, let alone a moral obligation. He is appalled by the danger that the cold imposes to people, specifically travelers. For example, the threat that forgetting tools to make a fire could cost travelers their life. He describes the country as empty in the face of the cold, and that people would rather stay inside at the expense of their economic welfare than go outside to the markets. His novice around the cold reflects his inexperience with northern regions, which is indicative of a southern origin.

Despite his most likely privileged lodgings, Fadlan makes no account of his host. This is unlike his other accounts of cities he stayed in. In addition, Fadlan makes little to no account of the culture of the people of Jurjanya, not even their religious status. He only says that they were on “friendly terms.” This could be due to the lack of society during the cold months.

Once the weather began to warm during the month of Shawwal (Febuary), the Jayhun river melted, prompting Fadlan and his caravan to begin preparation for the next par of thier journey. Fadlan says that his caravan commissioned camel skin boats to be made for their journey through rivers. These “folding boats” (9) made from camel skin would have been used to easily alternate from land travel to nautical. Fadlan writes that he was greatly unprepared for the cold despite the people of Jurjanya offering advice on how to dress for the cold. His cold weather attire, which was layers upon layers of clothing, constricted him so much that he “could hardly move,” (10). Relying entirely on body heat and the insulation of his layers, Fadlan sets out for the “Gate of the Turks,” (10)

The Travels of Marco Polo: Kaindu

April 13, 2022 / emilye / 0 Comments

Upon Marco Polo’s travel to the province and city of Kaindu, he first noted their environmental surroundings. There is a lake nearby the city that produces an abundance of pearls. The Great Khan won’t let anyone take them because if too many are taken they would become too cheap and lose their value. He may take some for his own use, but if anyone else takes them they suffer the pain of death. There is also a mountain that has stones of turquoise, that the Khan will also not let anyone take unless with his bidding. There are also plenty of beasts that roam around the city’s area for hunting. Lions, lynxes, bears, stags, roebucks, and birds roam around the city for hunting, as well as a lot of good fish. Usually, hunters go after these animals for the acquisition and sale of their musk. The city is also a great source of cloves and ginger. Polo also notes that the people of this city do not have grape wine, but instead make their wine of wheat, rice, and spices, which in his opinion tastes just as good.

Further in his account of Kaindu, he writes about the city’s monetary practices. Their money is contained in gold bars. They value their money by its weight and weigh it out by saggi. Aside from their gold bars, the people of Kaindu do not have coined money bearing the Khan’s stamp. However, they boil salt into molds to form blocks where the Great Khan’s stamp is set and the blocks are then used for small change. When their traders travel to other places, they bring about forty blocks and receive a saggio of gold for their blocks in exchange because this city is more isolated and cut off from the rest of other civilized villages. Evidently, the natives cannot dispose of their gold for purchases, so they sell it cheap because you can find gold in the rivers and lakes nearby.

Polo also mentions the intertwining of these people’s sexual and hospitality practices. In this city, men do not think it is bad for a stranger to exchange in sexual relations with whomever woman is in a particular man’s home. Instead, they see a stranger’s sexual interest in their woman as a compliment and a blessing on the woman for the gods. As a form of hospitality, if a man sees a stranger looking to lodge in his home, he tells his wife to let the man have his will with her and leaves his home immediately and doesn’t return until the stranger leaves. Though the Khan has forbidden this hospitality/sexual practice, the people continue to engage in it because “they’re all addicted to it and there is no one to accuse another” (175).

The extensive mention of the city of Kaindu’s monetary methods is typical for the travel writer that he is. Polo is the descendant of successful merchants and is a respected one himself, so it would be reasonable to anticipate his comments on the monetary practices of the cities he passes through. He finds particular interest in the city of Kaindu’s money as it is a rather isolated city that both makes its own coinage and exchanges its blocks for gold in order to make purchases in other cities. Polo most likely recorded these monetary practices to inform other travelers that they may need to make money exchanges in order to engage in trade in this city.

In Polo’s description of the sexual hospitality practice of this city, he concludes his description noting that the Great Khan had prohibited this practice. Yet, the people of this city had continued to engage in offering women as a form of hospitality for traveling strangers and no one could be prosecuted for these actions because no one would accuse each other. Polo takes interest in the people’s banding together against the prohibition of the Great Khan, seemingly given the respect he is granted by a number of powerful royalty due to his family’s high-ranking merchant status. As a result, Polo may find the resistance against the Great Khan’s prohibition to be an indication of the bad morals of the people of Kaindu.

The Book of Margery Kempe: Bologna

April 13, 2022 / hughessa / 0 Comments

Before Margery arrives in Jerusalem, she arrives in Bologna, Italy. On her way to Bologna, she comments on how nice some people were to her, sometimes allowing her to sleep in their own bed for “God’s love” (Kempe 101). She also comments on how the Lord granted her great spiritual comfort and guidance on her journey, saying, “And so God brought her on her way until she came to Bologna” (Kempe 101). She finds her travel companions who had previously abandoned her in Bologna as well. They were amazed that she had gotten to Bologna before they did and one of them asked her to rejoin the party, which she did, after agreeing to the conditions to not talk of the Gospel and to “sit and make merry” at meals (Kempe 101). There are not too many details about her stop in Bologna, so it could be assumed that they were only there for food and rest. She and her friends move on to Venice quite quickly, without much other detail. The most significant thing that happens in Bologna is that Margery gets to travel with her companions again, with the agreement that she must stop acting out. Does she follow through with her agreement? No. Not very long after, she gets abandoned again for not following through with her promise.

Margery continues to insist and depend on the presence of God in her life, attributing all of her successes to him and even saying that He is the reason that people were so nice to her on her travel to Bologna. Her devotion to God seems to be bother her downfall and her triumph. When she is judged for her extreme devotion, she reassures herself that God tells her that she is doing the right thing and that she will go to heaven. When something goes well in her travels, she gives credit to God. She implies that God himself guides her to Bologna where she is reunited with her former travel companions. When she says, “God brought her on her way” it almost seems as if God is pulling her along, or carrying her to her destinations. This image of God carrying Margery to her destinations is extremely fitting and makes a lot of sense, given what we already know about Margery. She believes that, in essence, she can do no wrong because God is guiding her. Anything that happens, good or bad, is God’s will. I can see how frustrating this would be to travel with. Traveling was incredibly dangerous to begin. To add a travel companion who would not be afraid to make any sort of mistake because regardless of the outcome she would declare it God’s will would be incredibly worrisome for a group of travelers who are concerned for their safety on their journey. Not only would she be a nuisance to travel with, she could potentially be a hazard. I do wonder how she keeps getting re-accepted into her travel groups who abandon her. She is so annoying and dangerous to travel with that I wonder why they would risk accepting her back into their group. Maybe other Christians in the group find her annoying, but also believe in the importance of the pilgrimage and want to help her regardless.