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Ibn Fadlan and the Land of Darkness: The Bashghirds

In this part of his journey, Ibn Fadlan is utterly absorbed in their cultural and spiritual practices. He relates their tendencies to decapitation as well as their habit of eating lice and fleas. He names the Bashghirds as “…the worst of the Turks, the dirtiest and the readiest to kill,” lumping their practice of beard shaving in with decapitation and consumption of insects (23). Ibn Fadlan also takes the time to describe the Bashghirds apparent worship of “a piece of wood shaped like a phallus” and their practice of kissing it when they begin a journey or meet an enemy (23). The various religious practices catch and hold the attention of Ibn Fadlan as well. He describes in minor detail their “twelve lords” as well as meditating briefly upon a few particular clans that worship snakes, fish and cranes (24).

As far as geographical descriptions go, the only details Ibn Fadlan records are the various rivers he crosses to enter the land of the Bashghirds and then again to leave the Turkish people and continue on to the king of the Saqaliba.

What is so fascinating about this short but informatively dense excerpt of Ibn Fadlan’s writing is his focus on building evidence against the religious and cultural practices of the Bashghirds as a people, as if justifying his dismissal of them as “lost souls,” (24). Even his very first comment on this group of people is of the “precaution[s]” he took against them because “they are the worst of the Turks,” (23). He then describes their propensity for murder and their practice of shaving their beards, two tenants that directly oppose the beliefs of Islam. Already, we can see his prejudice against them forming, but Ibn Fadlan’s description of one particular Bashghird who converted to Islam underlines his distaste for the people themselves, based not only in religion.

When describing how the Bashghirds do not shy away from eating insects, including lice and fleas, Ibn Fadlan chooses to relate an anecdote involving a Bashghird who has converted to Islam. As he has demonstrated in other portions of the text, Ibn Fadlan mainly categorizes people by their religion, but he writes of this Islam convert in the same disparaging way he describes the other, non-Muslim Bashghirds. Ibn Fadlan writes, “We has with us a man of this people who had converted to Islam and who served us. One day, I saw him take a flea from his clothes and, after having crushed it with his fingernail, he devoured it and on noticing me, said: ‘Delicious!'” (23). The transition in tone from one of inclusion with the use of the “with” preposition as well as the mention that this man had converted to Islam, to one of disgust is striking. The way in which Ibn Fadlan constructs this anecdote (first likening the man to himself through religion and then separating him through this behavior) lends the Bashghird man a divisive air. The moment when he turns from his flea to Ibn Fadlan to say, “Delicious!” rings with contempt and mean-spirited behavior, which certainly seems to fall in line with Ibn Fadlan’s impression of the Bashghird people. What is so intriguing and surprising about this anecdote is the way that Ibn Fadlan almost seems to use the man’s race to categorize and characterize him instead of the connection they share in religion.

The Book of John Mandeville: The Land of Prester John

Sir John Mandeville ends his account with the tale of the land of Prester John. He claims Prester John is regarded as “the Emperor of India”, and that his land, called “the isle of Pentixoire”, is composed of many kingdoms of Christians. It is exceedingly clear that Mandeville has never been to India, as he begins by describing it as being composed of islands because of “great floods flowing in from Paradise”. Here, the author of Sir John Mandeville’s narrative really takes advantage of being able to describe the land as he wishes, with no contradictions from other travelers; he describes an idealistic and fanciful land full of riches and beauty, where good rules over all and the Christians are in power. He justifies the small amount of visitors by explaining that merchants find what they need in the isles of Cathay, which are closer and a much less dangerous trip than the journey to the lands of Prester John. However, Mandeville assures his readers that the lands of Prester John are nevertheless exceedingly wealthy.

John Mandeville concentrates mostly on describing the faith and piety of Prester John and the wealth and beauty his land possesses. He describes Prester John and his people as being devout Christians who believe wholeheartedly in the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, and who are loyal to one another and their faith. Even in battle, they are led by three gold crosses, who are protected by hundreds of thousands of guards. This is possible because, according to Mandeville, Prester John possesses an army composed of “innumerable men” to bring with him into battle. When not riding into battle, he carries a plain wooden cross with him, which seems to be a sign of humbleness, piety, and respect for the way his Lord died. However, despite the fact that Mandeville claims the people of Prester John’s kingdoms “set no store by material possessions”, he reports that Prester John also carries with him a vessel “full of gold and jewels, gems like rubies, sapphires, emeralds, topaz, irachite, chrysolites, and various other gems” as a symbol of his lordship and power. Sir John Mandeville then goes on to describe Prester John’s city, palace, and lands to be overflowing with exactly the type of material possession that he claims the people put no stock in. Mandeville seems to find it very important to emphasize the wealth and riches owned by the Prester John and his people. His descriptions of the gems and jewels that he apparently finds around every corner in Pentixoire seem intended to produce an awed and impressed reaction from his audience, rather than an accurate or realistic description of what a pious and humble Christian man might possess. In fact, most of Mandeville’s descriptions seem targeted towards producing a reaction rather than composing what might seem like a real world; he describes nearly everything as being either good and beautiful or evil and malevolent and therefore fought against by Prester John, and he finishes by reenforcing Prester John’s Christianity and the piousness of his people, even claiming that the kings under Prester John are all bishops, abbots, and other members of Christian clergy. Sir John Mandeville’s account of the lands of Prester John were designed to produce and amazed and dazzled reaction from his audience and connect that reaction to the idea of the greatness of Christianity.

The Book of John Mandeville: Jerusalem

In his narrative “The Book of John Mandeville” the author mentions Jerusalem many times before he actually talks about the city in a separate chapter, because Jerusalem is the destination of most of the routes in the first few chapters. The specific chapter about Jerusalem is, like many of the others, greatly religious based. Almost everything he mentions has a religious element to it. He talks about the location of the city, the terrain around it and the cities nearby. Many of these have religious names and he includes where the names came from. He describes various buildings in Jerusalem, and their religious importance. He goes off on a short tangent about the story of Jesus’ death on the cross, but then explains which places in Jerusalem are connected to the story.  Almost every attraction he talks about has religious significance. He discusses some of the history of Jerusalem, especially regarding the races of people who have controlled it (religious groups like Christians and Jews are included in his definition of races) and includes information about the mountains nearby as well as the dead sea. Many other religious stories and figures are mentioned in the chapter also.

 

While other chapters in “The Book of John Mandeville” have seemed to be more for entertainment purposes than actual practical use, this chapter actually appears more like a guidebook for the religious pilgrim visiting Jerusalem. The author discusses in detail many different religious buildings and attractions and in some cases even includes where they are located in the city. He describes how many miles away other prominent cities in the area are and includes some history of the city itself. Almost all the information he includes in this chapter is religiously connected, and the chapter seems like the perfect companion for a pilgrim visit Jerusalem. Many of the most important religious places a pilgrim would want to visit are included in the chapter, and the author gives information on the religious history and significance for each of these. He also includes helpful information about the surrounding terrain, about the mountains and the dead sea nearby. The inclusion of descriptions of where other cities are in miles and how many steps it takes to get from one religious attraction to the other also lends to the feeling that this chapter is like a guidebook.

The Travels of Marco Polo: Andaman

On Marco Polo’s voyage to India, he passes through many islands. One of the islands he comes across is Andaman. There is no description of his journey or how his journey led him to this island.

One of the first things Marco Polo says about the island is its greatness in size. He then discusses the defining aspects of the island. He says, “the people have no king. They are idolaters and live like wild beasts” (Marco Polo, 258). Marco Polo goes into more detail about the native people of Andaman and their physical characteristics. He says that the men of the island are worth describing and speaks of their animalistic features. He describes the men saying, “all the men of this island have heads like dogs, and teeth and eyes like dogs; for I assure you that the whole aspect of their face is that of big mastiffs” (258). He then defines them as a cruel race that feasts on outsiders to their land.

Marco Polo sets up the culture of the island as a place that is vastly different in comparison to his Western culture or what he considers to be civilized. He begins saying that the people do not have a ruler suggesting the island has a lack of authority and structure. He also says they are idolaters which Marco Polo uses negatively to suggest they have anti-Christian beliefs. Marco Polo moves onto describe the native people of Andaman. He compares the people to dogs, specifically to mastiffs in not only their facial features but further says they act like ferocious dogs in how they devour the people who do not belong to their land. Marco Polo’s racist views are evident in this passage. He already looks down on their culture for their lack of order and differing beliefs. Marco Polo expresses his opposition even further using fearsome descriptions of the Andaman natives. His descriptions of the people in Andaman suggest the cruelty of the entire race. It seems Marco Polo is using race as a signifier of personal attributes. Even further, it seems Marco Polo is alluding to the fact that the people who look and act in this dog-like manner must have something to do with their lack of authority and in their (what he believes) sinful views.

Marco Polo also focuses on the island’s goods and location. He says the island has an “abundance of spices of every kind” (158). Additionally, he says Andaman has food such as milk, rice, and “every sort of flesh.” Marco Polo emphasizes their fruits such as, apples and coconuts, and says they have others that are different from the ones in his home country. He then describes the difficulties ships have reached the island. He says the island is situated in a treacherous sea that does not allow ships to anchor or sail from the island. Marco Polo explains this is so because the sea is so strong it is able to eat away at the shore and drag trees from their roots into the gulf. Ships then get stuck in the gulf in the mass of trees and are unable to get out.

It is typical of Marco Polo to express interest in goods and resources due to his position as a trader. His emphasis on the different fruits on the island shows the reader that he intends on relaying to Westerns about the differences in land and culture. The passage about the unbelievable strong seas seems intentionally included in order to attract readers and make his journey sound thrilling. There is also a contradiction in the last section since it does not explain how Marco Polo was able to reach and depart from this said treacherous sea. This could either be read as a false assertion or that Marco Polo never traveled to the island.

 

 

The Book of Margery Kempe: Mount Calvary

Margery arrives in Jerusalem after taking a sea voyage from Venice. She actually never specifies exactly how long this journey took her. Sailboats travel at approximately 5 miles per hour, and the distance between Venice and Jerusalem is roughly 2000 miles. With this data and assuming good weather, it would take at least 17 days on a boat to get from Venice, Italy to Jerusalem. Margery does state that her and her companions stay in and around the city of Jerusalem for three weeks. During her stay in Jerusalem, Margery and her companions travel to Mount Calvary, the location where Christ was crucified. Today there is actually no consensus on this location, other than it is somewhere directly outside the walls of Jerusalem before its destruction in AD 70, and that it would have been well-visible to passersby. On the Mount of Calvary specifically, Margery details the great fits and convulsions of tears that she had at the location where Christ was supposedly crucified. She details visions she received on site of Christ’s body hanging on the cross in great detail, with Christ’s body “more full of wounds than a dove-cote ever was of holes, hanging upon the cross with the crown of thorns upon his head, his blessed hands, his tender feet nailed to the hard wood, rivers of blood flowing out plenteously from every limb” (106). Margery goes on to detail for a page and  a half why her constant bouts of tears and wails are perfectly nonsensical. She makes an analogy of her crying over the Passion of Christ like a sinner who offends God crying uncontrollably over the loss of a friend or lover. Kempe spends time justifying her tears and portrays her relationship with Christ as something very personal, crying over him the way that sinners would cry over the loss of a mere mortal. Margery also comments that she receives communion on the Mount of Calvary, and claims that she was “so full of holy thoughts and meditations, and holy contemplations… that she could never express them later, so high and so holy they were” (107). Once more at the Mount of Calvary she focuses deeply on her personal fits of crying, but this time there is an enhanced focus on the state of Jesus Christ in his Passion, and explaining why her fits are logical and worthy of applause through a comparison to individuals who grieve without restraint over the loss of someone worth less than the Son of God.

I believe in her analogy of her tears for the loss of Christ to other people’s tears for the loss of friends and loved ones, Margery is making a cultural commentary. She is calling people out by stating that if a person can cry immeasurably over a “creature” who has sinned against his Maker, and does so knowing it is shameful to God, it is extremely hypocritical that those same individuals should judge Kempe’s tears for Jesus Christ, who was without sin and was wrongfully condemned to death to ensure the salvation of all sin.  I think Margery’s analogy is particularly powerful because the loss of something well-loved, both material and human, is something nearly everyone can relate to. In that way, it is particularly powerful in prompting introspection into why Margery’s companions and others that judge her wails cry about losing wealth, friends, or lovers, more than they do over the pain Jesus Christ suffered. This calls into question the true belief of her companions and individuals in the 15th century, considering religion plays a more potent role in 15th century England and Europe than it necessarily does in the 21st century (at least on a political level, churches arguably have much less power and influence on individuals today, and profession of atheism is rising). Margery’s purpose through her analogy upon her arrival at the Mount of Calvary seems to not only reassert her own authority and justify her tears, but to beg the question– just how loyal to Christ are fellow pilgrims or Christian members of society? She consistently remarks through her text how often she is resented, scorned, and left behind, painting a picture (once again through her analogy) that many individuals are not earnest believers that truly care or have empathy for Jesus, who is supposed to be their Lord and Savior.

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