The final section of The Travels of Marco Polo that I would like to analyze is his time in Japan. Polo starts his description of Japan, much like other sections of his narrative, starting with an detailed account of the people. He goes into great depth in describing the people and uses similar adjectives that we have before, such as “fair-complexioned”, “good-looking”, and “idolaters”, but he introduces some new descriptors in this section: “well-mannered”, “wholly independent”, and “exercising no authority over any nation but themselves” (Polo 244). It is interesting to note the pattern of fair skin being tied to a superior and more attractive appearance, as we have seen before in many travel narratives in this class, but this is one of the first instances that Polo uses the word “nation” in his personal account. He does not define the characteristics of a nation for us, however we can assume that religion and geographical location are two factors a part of his understanding of separate nations, as Marco Polo constantly uses them to differentiate between the places on his travels. It is interesting to note that Polo describes Japan to be independent and “exercising no authority over any nation” because that insinuates that there is a lack of knowledge available for international community about Japan, since there are less cultural connections between this country and others. This is certainly supported when reading rest of Polo’s account on Japan, since there is so much false information about the country that is just not believable.
First, Marco Polo does not include many details of Japan at all, compared to the locations that he has traveled, simply focusing on the riches and religion of the nation. He mentions that Japan has a great deal of gold and pearls available and then goes into a long summary of how the Great Khan took control over the country, before ending the section with a brief description of their religion. The lack of information that Polo has on Japan, since he was never able to actually travel to it, is supplemented by stories that he has heard, which we have seen before like in the section on India, however for Japan these stories are less believable due to their generic nature. As we have stated in class before, the trope of cannibalism was one that was extremely popular, especially for highlighting how a culture or community was strange and unusual. In the last couple of sentences of the section, Polo mentions “they kill their captive and make meal of him with their kinsfolk. You must understand that they first cook him; and this human flesh they consider the choicest of all foods” (Polo 248). He does not mention any other substantive details, but emphasizes the idolaters preference for human flesh, which reveals Polo’s ignorance towards the country and his choice to view them as strange and unusual due to his lack of information on the country. As we can see in this section, there is a pattern in the amount and kind of information, as well as a change in tone, when Marco Polo speaks of locations that he has not visited versus the ones that he has visited, which takes away from his reliability as a narrator, as he is trying to provide information for the reader, without highlighting that this information is based off rumors or stories that he has learned.
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After nine years of traveling, Ibn Battutah claims, through his narrative, that he had reached South India. His first few weeks in South India mainly involved making short journeys via ship from island to island, traveling along shorelines, and visiting several coastal cities. Although Battutah did not note any of these islands or their communities as being particularly important or noteworthy, he did describe in great detail the land of Mulaibar. The Mulaibar territory, also referred to as pepper county, is known for its coastal road that connects the cities Sandabur and Kawlam. Battutah notes that it usually takes travelers two months to complete the journey, but that the road is notoriously safe and hospitable for Muslims and “infidels” alike. He does, however, describe the subtle ways in which the “infidels” persecute against Muslim travelers through their enforcement of body politics. In describing the land of Mulaibar, specifically focusing on the infidels who live in it and their treatment of Muslim travelers, Battutah shows the more nuanced ways in which religious power dynamics were enforced.
When describing the road through the land of Mulaibar, Battutah supports his claim that it is a safe and hospitable journey by noting that, after every half mile, there is a wooden shed, a bench, and a water well. An infidel cares for these amenities so that they can help the travelers rest and replenish. While this initially appears to be an amicable act on part of the infidels, Battutah goes on to explain that the infidels refuse to let Muslim travelers into their homes or use vessiles when eating and drinking. Instead, the infidels serve the travelers water in their hands and food on banana leaves. If a Muslim does eat off of the infidel’s plates, bowls, or cups, then the infidel “breaks the vessels or gives them to the Muslim” (220). Here, the infidels fear a Muslim touching, and consequently contaminate, their belongings. This shows the negative connotations that the infidels associate withMuslims and their Islamic faith, since the infidels see them as a contaminant.
Because it is the Muslims’ touch that the infidels fear, the Muslim body becomes engaged in religious-based body politics. Body politics, which refers to the ways in which social or institutional power regulates the human body, puts marginalized bodies in a position that lacks autonomy and promotes oppression. Although modern body politics are often associated with race, medieval body politics were associated with religion; this is because, as explained by Geraldine Hang, religion in the Middle Ages functioned similarly to race in the Modern Ages. In the instance Battutah describes, then, the infidels use body politics to oppress and dehumanize Muslim travelers because of their religion. Although the infidels still provide assistance to Muslim travelers, and although this oppression is not as extreme or noticeable as other forms of oppression, it still enforces an unequal power dynamic between two groups of people.
By acknowledging the body politics and microaggressions faced by Muslim travelers, Battutah shows that religious oppression can take many different forms. This section of the narrative provides greater insight into the typically overlooked struggles faced by travelers, and ultimately contributes to a more detailed, more realistic representation of Battutah’s travels.
Ibn-Baṭṭūṭa Muḥammad Ibn-ʿAbdallāh, and Tim Mackintosh-Smith. The Travels of Ibn Battutah. Translated by Gibb Hamilton Alexander Rosskeen, Picador, 2002.
During his journey, Ibn Battutah stops in the city of Baghdad in modern day Iraq. Ibn Battutah comments on the cultural, religious, and communal locations that are noteworthy in the city. He also notes the general geographic layout of the city. Ibn Battutah spends around half of his writing about Baghdad speaking about the physical buildings and their characteristics, functions, and histories. Ibn Battutah starts by noting that Baghdad is nowhere near its former glory, having been sacked by the Mongols, but that it is still “the Abode of Peace and the capital of al-Islam.” This indicates that Ibn Battutah sees Baghdad as an influential city not only in its political influence, but in its religious influence. Ibn Battutah remarks that the Tigris River is the most beautiful thing left in Baghdad and speaks to its former glory. Ibn Battutah continues by describing some of the popular locations in Baghdad. He speaks at length about the bath houses that are popular in Baghdad. Ibn Battutah describes the beautiful rocks and stone that are used in constructing them. He also compliments their ingenuity in designing the bath houses with “cubicles” so that no one has to share unless they wish, and everyone can retain their modesty. Ibn Battutah also talks about the location of the bazaars, saying that they are large and grand. Ibn Battutah does not only describe secular buildings, but also talks about religious buildings like mosques and colleges. Ibn Battutah mentions that there are 11 mosques that hold Friday prayer on the regular, and notes on which side of the Tigris they reside. He describes the Nizamiyah College, which has all four schools of Muslim jurisprudence, and talks about the accommodations they have there. Finally, Ibn Battutah talks about the king of al-Iraq who happened to be in Baghdad while he was visiting. He says that the name of this Sultan is Abu Sa’id Bahadur Khan and that his father was called Muhammad Khudabandah. Ibn Battutah explains that it was Khudabandah that converted to Islam. But about the current sultan, he says that he was young, beautiful, and generous, but was murdered by his gorgeous, but jealous wife after he married another wife.
Ibn Battutah’s description of Baghdad and his encounters there illuminates some of the issues he deems important to society. Ibn Battutah is always incredibly focused on religious matters. Ibn Battutah was a Muslim jurist so it makes sense that he is noting the location of mosques and the colleges for the education of jurists. But Ibn Battutah’s focus goes beyond the surface level, like with how he comments on the bath houses maintaining modesty and his acceptance of the punishment given to the sultan’s murderous wife. Ibn Battutah clearly took his job as a jurist seriously and cared about maintaining the correct morality for a Muslim society. Ibn Battutah also notes the important people in Baghdad, namely the sultan of Iraq. By naming the sultan and praising him, Ibn Battutah secures his own position of influence, because he reaffirms the structures in power.
After leaving Khwarazm, Ibn Fadlan and his caravan journey to Jurjanya. The distance between these two cities is about fifty farsakhs by boat according to Fadlan. He initially writes that his stay in Jurjanya was just more than a couple of days, however in later entries he accounts for a little over three months in Jurjanya. Since the Jayhun river froze over, inabling any travel by water, Fadlan’s stay in the city was extended for almost the entire winter.
During his time in Jurjanya, Fadlan is overwhelmed by the facets of cold weather, calling the land “a gate to the cold of hell,” (8). He takes note of the thickness of the ice that covers the river, claiming it was “seventeen spans thick,” and that “horses, mules, donkeys and carts slid over the ice as if on roads,” (8). It is unclear what measuable unit he means by “spans,” though it is assumed to be a gross exaggeration. Fadlan also accounts for practices relating to the cold weather. He writes that it is customary for friends to invite each other to sit by a fire, even beggars are treated to the fire before exchanges. This is relevant to Fadlan because in his culture, with customs and gestures centered around material gifts, there is no value placed on warmth, let alone a moral obligation. He is appalled by the danger that the cold imposes to people, specifically travelers. For example, the threat that forgetting tools to make a fire could cost travelers their life. He describes the country as empty in the face of the cold, and that people would rather stay inside at the expense of their economic welfare than go outside to the markets. His novice around the cold reflects his inexperience with northern regions, which is indicative of a southern origin.
Despite his most likely privileged lodgings, Fadlan makes no account of his host. This is unlike his other accounts of cities he stayed in. In addition, Fadlan makes little to no account of the culture of the people of Jurjanya, not even their religious status. He only says that they were on “friendly terms.” This could be due to the lack of society during the cold months.
Once the weather began to warm during the month of Shawwal (Febuary), the Jayhun river melted, prompting Fadlan and his caravan to begin preparation for the next par of thier journey. Fadlan says that his caravan commissioned camel skin boats to be made for their journey through rivers. These “folding boats” (9) made from camel skin would have been used to easily alternate from land travel to nautical. Fadlan writes that he was greatly unprepared for the cold despite the people of Jurjanya offering advice on how to dress for the cold. His cold weather attire, which was layers upon layers of clothing, constricted him so much that he “could hardly move,” (10). Relying entirely on body heat and the insulation of his layers, Fadlan sets out for the “Gate of the Turks,” (10)
Upon Marco Polo’s travel to the province and city of Kaindu, he first noted their environmental surroundings. There is a lake nearby the city that produces an abundance of pearls. The Great Khan won’t let anyone take them because if too many are taken they would become too cheap and lose their value. He may take some for his own use, but if anyone else takes them they suffer the pain of death. There is also a mountain that has stones of turquoise, that the Khan will also not let anyone take unless with his bidding. There are also plenty of beasts that roam around the city’s area for hunting. Lions, lynxes, bears, stags, roebucks, and birds roam around the city for hunting, as well as a lot of good fish. Usually, hunters go after these animals for the acquisition and sale of their musk. The city is also a great source of cloves and ginger. Polo also notes that the people of this city do not have grape wine, but instead make their wine of wheat, rice, and spices, which in his opinion tastes just as good.
Further in his account of Kaindu, he writes about the city’s monetary practices. Their money is contained in gold bars. They value their money by its weight and weigh it out by saggi. Aside from their gold bars, the people of Kaindu do not have coined money bearing the Khan’s stamp. However, they boil salt into molds to form blocks where the Great Khan’s stamp is set and the blocks are then used for small change. When their traders travel to other places, they bring about forty blocks and receive a saggio of gold for their blocks in exchange because this city is more isolated and cut off from the rest of other civilized villages. Evidently, the natives cannot dispose of their gold for purchases, so they sell it cheap because you can find gold in the rivers and lakes nearby.
Polo also mentions the intertwining of these people’s sexual and hospitality practices. In this city, men do not think it is bad for a stranger to exchange in sexual relations with whomever woman is in a particular man’s home. Instead, they see a stranger’s sexual interest in their woman as a compliment and a blessing on the woman for the gods. As a form of hospitality, if a man sees a stranger looking to lodge in his home, he tells his wife to let the man have his will with her and leaves his home immediately and doesn’t return until the stranger leaves. Though the Khan has forbidden this hospitality/sexual practice, the people continue to engage in it because “they’re all addicted to it and there is no one to accuse another” (175).
The extensive mention of the city of Kaindu’s monetary methods is typical for the travel writer that he is. Polo is the descendant of successful merchants and is a respected one himself, so it would be reasonable to anticipate his comments on the monetary practices of the cities he passes through. He finds particular interest in the city of Kaindu’s money as it is a rather isolated city that both makes its own coinage and exchanges its blocks for gold in order to make purchases in other cities. Polo most likely recorded these monetary practices to inform other travelers that they may need to make money exchanges in order to engage in trade in this city.
In Polo’s description of the sexual hospitality practice of this city, he concludes his description noting that the Great Khan had prohibited this practice. Yet, the people of this city had continued to engage in offering women as a form of hospitality for traveling strangers and no one could be prosecuted for these actions because no one would accuse each other. Polo takes interest in the people’s banding together against the prohibition of the Great Khan, seemingly given the respect he is granted by a number of powerful royalty due to his family’s high-ranking merchant status. As a result, Polo may find the resistance against the Great Khan’s prohibition to be an indication of the bad morals of the people of Kaindu.