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What we know about the economy and how

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Professor. Qualls

Russia from Clans to Empire

What we know about the Rus economy and how

               There are very few States nations or kingdoms that have managed to survive soly on one form of economic subsistence. The only example that comes to mind is Venice during the enlightenment, but even then they did not have complete freedom from agriculture. The reason that this is such an important realization is that Rus during the 8th through the 15th century was no exception. Archeologists have discovered massive amounts of material both in the cities and in the country side showing that there was a very active trade network and a booming agricultural sector to support their economy.

From the records we can see that farmers living in the northern part of Rus were not excluded from this prosperity. We can see that the type of tools and the techniques that they used were by no means stagnated. For example the type of plows found were primarily light plows that were very effective at tilling the soil after a heavy plow has worked over the land. And in the south we find evidence of different farm techniques in the form of Fallow Land techniques. What is so significant about this is that the records show that this along with many other improvements started to slowly move across the land in a gentle wave. This suggests that trade and communication between famers was likely supported by steady commerce and a strong economy.

So we know that the nation of Rus had a steady interstate trade that would facilitate the needs of the farmers. We also know that there was strong international trade pushing their economy based almost exclusively on the Dnieper, especially in amber. The reason we know this is that we have found hundreds of unfinished pieces of amber and entire workshops devoted to the creation of amber jewelry. The key thing that this can tell us about the Rus economy is how dependent the trade routes were on travel through the Baltic land. We know this because in the thirteenth century the German Teutonic order started to attack and seize the Baltic region and Prussia. At the same time we notice a dramatic drop in the amount of amber found in local shops and towns. We know that the amber mines still had amber so the only logical conclusion is that the Rus had no second trade route to ship their goods and so their economy stared.

What is Enlightenment?

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Being called enlightened alludes to the belief that someone is more knowledgeable about a topic than the majority of the community. This process is brought about when one begins to think for himself, therefore looking beyond how society sees things in order to create new thoughts and assumptions about how something is and what it might be/become. Immanuel Kant, the great German philosopher, defined Enlightenment as “man’s release from his self-incurred tutelage”. In this statement he expresses Enlightenment as thinking outside of the box in order to broaden ones mind and break away from the societal norms that they had been learning under since their birth. We understand that the process of enlightenment is necessary to progress in the global environment; I contend that Enlightenment has been an ongoing process that has been in motion since the dawn of man. How else (besides lucky discoveries) did people invent things without thinking “how can I make this tool better?”, and, at the root of it, isn’t that question the base of Enlightenment? Therefore, I believe, at its most basic point Enlightenment is the drive for a society to break out of its shell in search for methods that make the population’s lives easier by discovering new and improved tools and processes of getting things done.

What is Enlightenment?

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Kant defines enlightenment as “man’s release from self-incurred tutelage” with tutelage being “man’s inability to make use of his understanding without direction from another.” More than anything, enlightenment is a state of mind. It requires the privilege to think freely and the mental acuity to take advantage of this acuity. Enlightenment comes solely from within and cannot be attained through the assistance of periphery sources. While it necessitates the ability to think critically and analytically for oneself, enlightenment only occurs when one makes full and total use of this ability. Once enlightenment is achieved, the enlightened individual experiences an objective awareness of his surroundings. He experiences a greater understanding of the natural or artificial constraints that had once restricted him, which can be a powerful asset.

What is Enlightenment?

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Enlightenment is the abandonment of tutelage; the active seeking out of knowledge, freedom of thought, and the answers to earthly, religious, and spiritual queries. It is a process, not a state of being; to be truly and fully enlightened is a state of being that is unattainable. Enlightenment is particularly important in the presence of monarchs and despots who may restrict certain freedoms of their subjects. It is essential that the subjects of a monarchy question and argue in favor of freedom of thought, and not blindly obey in the face of an unjust and unenlightened tyrant. Kant argues that many people are unable or unwilling to seek enlightenment due to their self-incurred tutelage. He says that “a man may postpone enlightenment in what he ought to know, but to renounce it for posterity is to injure and trample on the rights of mankind.”

What is Enlightenment?

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According to Immanual Kant enlightenment is defined as “man’s release from his self-incurred tutelage.” Kant argues that a large majority of the population cannot experience enlightenment because of laziness and cowardice. “Have courage to use your reason” is the quote that is used which best describes what Kant was saying the challenges are. Kant is very critical of man saying that it is extremely difficult for them to reach enlightenment. What’s interesting is that he is saying all of this during his time, which would lead to an interesting discussion trying to determine if Kant thinks anyone can achieve enlightenment in today’s culture?

What is enlightenment?

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Enlightenment is the ability to think for yourself instead of being guided by a ruler. It takes courage to step out from complacence and into enlightenment. According to Kant, certain political ramifications are necessary to achieve this. Public use of reason must not be restricted while private use of reason must be restricted. Therefore the people should question why they do what they do, but not necessarily change it. In fact, if changing it would overthrow the government, that is not enlightenment. Overthrowing the current rule leads right back into the chaos of anarchy. However, by thinking for themselves, then suggesting changes in a civil manner, people can better themselves and society thus achieving enlightenment. Kant insists that the leader must say, “Argue as much as you will, and about what you will, but obey!” I believe there is a very fine line between having order and suppressing thought. As long as Kant only wishes to prevent riots, his belief that people must obey is justified. If to obey means to never question the monarch, that cannot be enlightenment. Frederick II ruled Prussia to his people’s and his own enlightenment by encouraging religious tolerance and open thought in general. He lead by example. His enlightenment allowed and even encouraged others to achieve the same. The enlightenment of the people is partly dependent on the on the government.

What is Enlightenment

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Kant writes that the motto of enlightenment is “Have the courage to use your own reason!”.  He also states the main detractors to this statement are mans tendencies towards “laziness and cowardice”.  Man has a tendency to fall back on what is easiest, and trying to find enlightenment is certainly not easy.  Instead it is easier to “have a book which understands for me, a pastor who has a conscience for me, a physician who decides my diet, and so forth”.  Why would man try to do any of those things for himself if he has people to do it for him?  Why would he go out of his way when the answers are presented to him?  With this strategy man will become stuck, will never “release from his self-incurred tutelage” as Kant states.  Kant writes that only requirement for enlightenment is freedom but he also writes “Everywhere there is restriction on freedom.”  When constantly being told what to do by superiors it becomes easy for man to go back to the “laziness and cowardice”.  To reach enlightenment man must break away from the pack and see the truth.

A man who saw the truth was Frederick II, considered a major advocate for enlightenment absolutism.  In his writing he said “The sovereign is the representative of his State.  He and his people for a single body.”  These were his own ideas, writing “That is my idea of the duties of sovereigns” at the end of his “Essay on Forms of Government”.  In that short sentence Frederick II took Kant’s motto on enlightenment and put it in his own words.  He looked past the laziness and cowardice of man and found, what he thought was, the truth.

What is Enlightenment?

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Enlightenment happens when one frees himself from the shackles of society thinking for the masses and one thinks for oneself. Once one frees oneself, the mind is open to question the world for oneself and search to find answers- more than one. Immanuel Kant believed that Enlightenment was a “man’s release from his self- incurred tutelage”. This means that to be open to enlightenment, man must relieve himself from relying on others to think for him. He goes on to say that people rely on their doctors, clergy, and the knowledge of others to survive. If people did not depend on these things, they would have to think for themselves and be independent. If man never has to think for himself because others will do it for him, then he will never exercise his mind to contemplate and reason for himself. In this way, man is hindered. He gets used to not making his own decisions or solving his own problems, so he is unable to do so. Kant states that a man who is lazy and relies on guidance from others remains a minor his whole life. By staying content with this form of life, man is handing all control over to the people who direct him and make decisions for him. This is very dangerous because the people with this power may very well abuse it, leaving the passive individuals with no way to fight back for their freedom. Kant also ascertains that once man decides to think freely and detaches himself from these guardians, it will “affect(s) the principles of government” and man will be treated like “more than machines”. A man who is able and willing to think for himself commands respect and cannot be used to the advantage of another without his consent.

Enlightenment Viewpoints of Locke and Frederick II

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Amongst other ideas, the Enlightenment focused on the role of developing the individual apart from the structured of society of the past. Not only does this include the leadership, but in addition the ways to implement a civil society. Both John Locke and Frederick II suggested ideas for monarchy reform in order to instate individual freedoms for the people. In the case of Locke, he contradicted the concept of patriarchalism, which defends the absolute power of the monarchy. Similarly along the ideas of reforming leadership, Frederick the Great established the necessity for a ruler to consider himself as “men like the least of their subjects” and to understand “the character of the people” he governs. More than just his writings, he is considered one of the first enlightened absolutists because of his reforms to the Prussian governing system: non- nobles could be judges and tolerance (religiously and in terms of press) was commonplace. His civil society meant a union between the leaders and their subjects, where the sovereign sets the positive, moral example for the state to follow. Locke’s own perspective of civilized society meant focusing on natural rights of people that were undeniable and universal; and protecting those rights through social contract theory by submitting few freedoms to the ruler to protect the rest. In addition he searched for individual rights, and questioned the authority of states over individuals. The Enlightenment proved to be a time for people to question the way that their individual rights were protected, forcing them to simultaneously questioned the powers that governed them.

The Enlightenment

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The Enlightenment is the release of individual’s opinions and expressions, or as Immanuel Kant puts it, “man’s release from his self-incurred tutelage.”  Kant states that since most of the population has submitted themselves to “guardians [that] have first made their domestic cattle dumb…” most of the population’s competence is therefore laden with “laziness and cowardice”.  If the masses are given freedom, “enlightenment is almost sure to follow”, in addition to the independent thinkers within an  society.  However, a citizen must still obey the government, and must pay taxes, as being a scholar is “not contrary to his duty as a citizen.”

Frederick II is a great example of an enlightened despot, stating he “must be thoroughly acquainted with its resources, the character of the people.  He also states that a ruler must not “waste the money of the people, the taxes which they have paid, in luxury, pomp, or debauchery.”  The aspects of these duties are largely due to his stance that sovereigns must be civil servants to the people.